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GQEXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MODERN PLUMBING 
ILLUSTRATED 

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
— R. M. STARBUCK — 
Standard Practical Plumbing. 

This is a complete treatise and covers the subject of Modern Plumbing in all its branches. It 
treats exhaustively on the skilled work of the plumber and the theory underlying plumbing devices 
and operations. It commends itself to anyone working in the plumbing trade. A large amount of 
space is devoted to a practical treatment of hot water supply, circulation and range boiler work. 
Another valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing for plumbers. Price S3. 60. 




I I I I I I I I I 

1__L_J LJ__L_L _!_ J L 

__i i__i i L 

I i l \ i I I FT M i 



fTrrH 



Modern Plumbing 
illustrated 



A COMPREHENSIVE AND THOROUGHLY 

PRACTICAL WORK ON THE MODERN 

AND MOST APPROVED METHODS 

OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 

THE STANDARD WORK. FOR PLUMBERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, 

PROPERTY OWNERS, BOARDS OF HEALTH AND PLUMBING 

EXAMINERS, AND FOR TRADE CLASSES IN PLUMBING 

By R. Mr STARBUCK 

AUTHOR OF "QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF 

SANITARY PLUMBING" (4 VOLS.), "QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE 

PRACTICE AND THEORY OF STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING," 

"MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS," ETC., ETC. 




Fourth Edition Revised and Enlarged 

FULLY ILLUSTRATED BY SEVENTY DETAILED PLATES 
MADE EXPRESSLY BY THE AUTHOR FOR THIS WORK 



NEW YORK 
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 
2 West 45th Street 
1922 



< 














Copyright, 1922 and 1915, by 




THE 


NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING 

COPYRIGHT, 1906, BY R. M. STARBUCK 


COMPANY 



NOTE 

Every illustration in this book has been specially 
made by the Author and their use without permis- 
sion is strictly prohibited. 



©CI.A674007 



Printed in the V. S. A. 






2*~ 



W-3'22 



PREFACE 

Fifty years brings great changes in almost anything we can think 
of that is of human origin, and this is especially true concerning 
plumbing practice. 

The author has been closely associated with the various branches 
of the trade for considerably more than that length of time, and 
comparatively few, therefore, are better able than he, to appreciate 
the marvellous advancement that has been achieved in the last half 
century in plumbing construction. 

When it is considered that fifty years ago nearly everything that 
was used in the installation of the plumbing system, was made by 
hand, it is clear that the change that has taken place is a radical one. 
In the old days the plumber was a lead worker, and great skill was 
required of him, much more than of the workman of today. It is 
this change that many of the older plumbers are inclined to view 
with regret, for no mechanic could possibly have taken greater pride 
in his work than did the old-time lead worker. 

Whereas, in the early days, pretty much the entire plumbing 
system was of lead, even to the soil piping, the change that has taken 
place has been of such a thorough nature that today, in many sec- 
tions of the country, practically no lead is being used in the installa- 
tion of the plumbing system. 

It cannot be denied, however, that a comparison of the modern 
system with the one of fifty years ago, must greatly favor the 
modern construction in every way, for it is certainly far more sani- 
tary, more efficient and satisfactory in every way, and more beautiful 
as well. 

One of the first important factors in producing a better and 
more sanitary plumbing system, was the introduction of open plumb- 
ing, which did away with the closing in of fixtures with sheathing. 

Then came another great step forward, — the introducing of 
venting, followed by a wonderful development in the design and manu- 
facture of fixtures. No doubt the very great improvement in design 



6 PREFACE 

and operation of the water closet has been one of the chief factors 
in bringing about the great advance that has taken place. 

In recent years the change from the old style crown venting 
to continuous venting, although perhaps not to be reckoned as one 
of the most vital changes that has taken place, is nevertheless to be 
considered as one of the leading factors in producing improved sani- 
tary conditions. 

Various influences have worked together to bring about the pres- 
ent highly developed condition of the plumbing system. 

People in general, and especially working people, have gradually 
been educated to desire better sanitary conditions in their homes, and 
to demand them. In this effort the people have been greatly aided 
by the co-operation of state and municipal authorities. Plumbing- 
practice has long been regulated by law in most sections of the 
country, and this has been of great benefit. 

The benefits derived from competition should not be overlooked,' 
for makers of plumbing materials of every description have made 
most wonderful advancement, until today almost every detail that 
enters into plumbing construction seems to have been so perfected, that 
it is difficult to see where further improvement can be looked for, — 
and still the development goes on continually. 

It is a matter of interest to speculate on what can possibly be 
the next great forward step in plumbing construction. It is difficult 
to see what this can be, but certainly in due time it will make its 
appearance, and perhaps the time will come when people will look 
back upon the work that we of this day think so fine, as not to be 
compared to the work of their period, — and we of course hope that 
this will come true. 

The modern system of plumbing does not date back a great many 
years prior to the appearance of "Modern Plumbing Illustrated" in 
its earlier forms, mention of which is made in the Introduction of 
this book. At the same time, during this period of about twenty-two 
years, the only great change that has come, is the introduction of 
continuous venting, advancement otherwise being mostly in the de- 
veloping and perfecting of detail, but it is perfectly true that in this 
direction what has been accomplished is nothing short of marvellous. 

As far as possible, the author has endeavored to bring out the 
leading features of modern plumbing practice, but it should be noted 
that in such a work, the writer must take care not to advocate too 






PREFACE 7 

strongly methods followed in any one part of the country. It is 
well known that there is considerable difference of opinion on a num- 
ber of the essential features- of the plumbing system, and so far as 
the writer knows, no definite conclusion has been reached on several 
of these subjects. In such instances it seems the better policy to give 
the argument on both sides of the question, leaving the decision sub- 
ject to individual judgment. 

The author wishes to say that it has seemed to him that in many 
of the works on plumbing, too much space has been given up to the 
consideration of antiquated fixtures and kindred obsolete subjects, 
and that it has seemed best to him to omit practically all consideration 
of such matters. 

In conclusion, the author might say that the deep interest, which 
he has for so many years had for everything pertaining to the better- 
ment of conditions surrounding the plumbing trade, still continues as 
earnest as ever, and that he sincerely trusts that the pages of "Modern 
Plumbing Illustrated" will continue indefinitely to be a source of 
help to its readers. 

February, 1922. The Author 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Plate I. — The Kitchen Sink — Laundry Tubs — Vegetable Wash 

Sink — Combination Sink and Wash Trays 15 

Plate II. — Lavatories — The Pantry Sink ........ 21 

Plate IIa. — Connections for Lavatories — Recess Lavatory — Pedestal 

Lavatory — Barber's Double Lavatory 26 

Plate III— The Bath Tub— Foot Bath— Sitz Bath— Child's Bath- 
Shower Bath 29 

Plate IIIa. — Connections for Shower Baths 32 

Plate IV. — Water Closet Connections — Venting of Water Closets . 35 

Plate V. — The Low-down Water Closet — Operation of the Water 

Closet by Flush Valves — Water Closet Ranges 41 

Plate Va. — Water Closet Range with Large Local Vent .... 46 

Plate VI— The Slop Sink— The Urinal— The Bidet 47 

Plate VII. — The Hotel or Restaurant Sink — The Use of Grease 

Traps 53 

Plate VIII. — Refrigerators — Safe Wastes — Tank Overflow — Floor 
Drains and Drips from Ice Houses, etc. — Laundry Waste — 
Creamery Waste 59 

Plate IX. — Refrigerator Lines — Bar Sinks — Soda Fountain Sinks — 

Exhausts, Drips, and Blow-offs of Steam Boilers, etc. ... 63 

Plate X. — The Stall Sink — The Horse Trough — Frost-Proof Water 

Closets 6j 

Plate XL — Connections for S-Traps — Venting . 71 

Plate XII. — Connections for Drum Traps — Practical Requirements 

of Venting 79 

Plate XIII. — Soil Pipe and Soil Pipe Connections 86 

Plate XIV. — Supporting and Running of Soil Pipe ...... 93 

9 



io CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Plate XV. — The House or Main Trap and Fresh Air Inlet ... 99 

Plate XVI. — Floor and Yard Drains — Subsoil Drainage — The 

Cellar Drainer 107 

Plate XVII.— Water Closets— Water Closet Floor Connections. . 113 

Plate XVIIL— Local Venting 121 

Plate XIX.— Bath Rooms 129 

Plate XX.— Bath Rooms . 135 

Plate XXL— Bath Rooms 141 

Plate XXII. — Bath Rooms 147 

Plate XXIII. — Poor Practices in Plumbing Construction . . .153 

Plate XXIV. — " Roughing-in " — Use of Cleanouts 159 

Plate XXV.— Testing of the Plumbing System— The Water Test— 

The Air Test — The Smoke Test — The Peppermint Test . . 165 

Plate XXVI. — Continuous Venting 173 

Plate XXVII. — Continuous Venting for Two-Floor Work . . . 177 

Plate XXVIII. — Continuous Venting for Two Lines of Fixtures on 

Three or More Floors — Practical Requirements of Venting . 181 

Plate XXIX. — Continuous Venting of Water Closets — Circuit Vents 

— Loop Vents 185 

Plate XXX. — Plumbing' for Cottage House — General Remarks . .189 

Plate XXXI. — Construction of Cellar Piping — The House Drain, 

House Sewer, etc 193 

Plate XXXII. — Plumbing for Residences — Use of Special Fittings 

— Brass Piping 199 

Plate XXXIII. — Plumbing for Two-Flat House — Rain Leaders — 
Regulation of Plumbing Construction in Tenement Houses, 
Lodging Houses, etc 203 

Plate XXXIV. — Plumbing for Apartment Building — Systems of 

Hot- Water Supply — Range Boilers, etc. . 209 



CONTENTS ii 

PAGE 

Plate XXXV.— Plumbing for Double Apartment Buildings— Fil- 
tered Water Supply .215 

Plate XXXVL— Plumbing for Office Buildings 221 

Plate XXXVII. — Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms — Causes of 

Siphonage in the Unvented Plumbing System 225 

Plate XXXVIII.— Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms . . . .231 

Plate XXXIX. — Plumbing for Bath Establishment— Tanks for Stor- 
age and Supply 235 

Plate XL. — Plumbing for Engine House and Stables — Factory 

Plumbing 239 

Plate XLI. — Automatic Flushing for Schools, Factories, etc. . . 243 

Plate XLII. — The Use of Flushing Valves 249 

Plate XLIII. — Urinals for Public Toilet Rooms . 253 

Plate XLIV. — The Durham System — The Destruction of Pipes by 

Electrolysis 259 

Plate XLV. — Construction of Work without Use of Lead . . . 269 

Plate XLVI. — The Disposal of Sewage of Fixtures Located below 
Sewer Level — Automatic Sewage Lifts — Automatic Sump 
Tanks 275 

Plate XLVII. — Country Plumbing — Water Supply 283 

Plate XLVIII. — Construction and Use of Cesspools 291 

Plate XLIX. — Construction and Action of the Septic Tank — Under- 
ground Disposal of Partially Purified Sewage — Automatic 
Sewage Siphons 297 

Plate L. — Pneumatic Systems of Water Supply — Hydraulic Rams — 
Pumps — Water Supply by Siphonage — Pumping by Windmill 
— Capacity of Tanks — Protection of Supply Pipes against 
Freezing 307 

Plate LI.— Water Supply for Country House — Double-Acting Ram 

— Cistern Filters — Hot- Water Supply 323 



12 CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Plate LII. — Thawing Underground Water Pipes by Electricity . . 329 

Plate LIIL — Double Boilers 335 

Plate LIV. — Hot-Water Supply for Large Buildings 341 

Plate LV. — Automatic Control of Hot- Water Tanks . . . . . 347 

Plate LVI. — The Three-Pipe System of Supply 351 

Plate LVII. — The Softening of Hard Water for Domestic Purposes . 355 

Plate LVIII. — Special Problems and Devices in Hot- Water Supply . 359 

Plate LIX. — Simple Form of Septic Tank Having Only One Com- 
partment 366 

Plate LX. — One of the Commercial or Stock Forms of Septic Tank . 367 

Plate LXI. — Imhoff Tank or Two-Story Septic Tank 368 

Plate LXII. — Dry Well with Percolating Filter for Final Disposal of" 

Sewage from Septic Tank 369 

Plate LXIII. — Septic Tank Discharging into Absorption Trench and 

into an Under-Drained Absorption Trench 370 

Plate LXIV. — Plumbing for Garage 371 

Plate LXV. — Connections for Blow-off or Condensing Tank — Waste 

Connections from Hydraulic Elevators 372 

Plate LXVI. — Connections for Drinking Fountains . . . . . 373 

Plate LXVII. — Special Types of Water Closets 374 

Investigation Made by the English Government into the Use of the 
Intercepting or Main Trap — Danger of Sewer and Drain Air — 
Ventilation of Sewers 375 



INTRODUCTION TO 1922 EDITION 

It may be a matter of interest, to know that "Modern Plumbing 
Illustrated" first made its appearance twenty-two years ago, though 
it would be difficult to many to detect a very close relationship be- 
tween the crude publication of 1899 and the more finished work 
of 1922. 

Many will recall the set of fifty small blueprint plates, known 
as "The Starbuck Plumbing Charts," which first made their appear- 
ance in January, 1899, but few will realize that the present "Modern 
Plumbing Illustrated" is the outcome or the offspring of "The Star- 
buck Plumbing Charts." 

As a matter of fact, when this latter publication first appeared, 
it was something of a pioneer, for very little had been attempted 
in the way of presenting in book form anything of real practical 
value relating to the practice and theory of plumbing as carried on 
in this country. There were, to be sure, several works on the subject, 
but they seemed to give greater attention to the history of plumbing 
practice than to consideration of and instruction in modern methods. 
There were also available at that time, several English works on the 
subject, excellent from the standpoint of English practice, but of 
comparatively small value to the American plumber, owing to 
the great fundamental differences in the methods followed in the two 
countries. 

"The Starbuck Plumbing Charts" then, crude as the work really 
was, ranks among the first attempts to give printed instructions and 
information concerning the modern system of plumbing. 

As before stated, this publication was in the form of small blue- 
prints, fifty in number, showing quite a wide range of work, but 
without text except for a few notes of an explanatory nature, shown 
on some of the blueprint plates. Apparently this set of charts or 
plates filled a want that had never before been met, and needless to 
say, the plumbing trade made prompt and general use of them. 

However, as is so often the case, it was soon seen that this first 
effort was capable of improvement, with the result that in 1900, a 
little more than a year after the original publication first appeared, 

13 



i 4 INTRODUCTION 

it was replaced by a set of blueprint plates of double the size of the 
first set. With the appearance of the second set of charts, its title 
was changed to "Modern Plumbing Illustrated," a title which the 
work has since held. 

The charts in their enlarged form had an excellent sale for a 
number of years, not only among all branches of the plumbing trade, 
but to architects, contractors, boards of health and plumbing ex- 
aminers. 

During this period, however, great advancement was made in 
all branches of plumbing construction, and to keep pace it was clearly 
seen by the author, after the new publication had had a run of about 
six years, that it had again become advisable to improve the work, 
and this time the change was a radical one. 

In 1906 "Modern Plumbing Illustrated" was changed to its 
present form. So many changes had come about in plumbing practice 
that it was found inadvisable to make use of any of the plates of the 
1 900- 1 906 publication, and accordingly new plates throughout were 
made, showing a much wider range of construction than the earlier 
work had done. 

In 191 5 the work was further improved by the addition of a 
number of plates with accompanying text. 

Coming now to the present time, 1922, need is again seen of a 
thorough revision of "Modern Plumbing Illustrated." Much that has 
become either obsolete or of small consequence, has been eliminated, 
and much new matter added. 

In this last revision is given still further proof of the author's 
earnest desire to keep "Modern Plumbing Illustrated" abreast of the 
times, for he realizes that many a fine work on the same subject has 
eventually lost out simply through being allowed to go on year after 
year in the same form as its first appearance, with no revision or 
additions whatever, apparently with the idea that its original prestige 
and success would continue forever, regardless of every kind of 
carelessness. 

February, 1922. 



PLATE I 
THE KITCHEN SINK— LAUNDRY TUBS 



Connection for 
Sinks and Wash Trays 



Plate 1 





THE KITCHEN SINK 

The kitchen sink is made of plain, galvanized or enameled east 
iron, slate, soapstone, and porcelain. The waste for the kitchen sink 
is generally 1^2 inch, though the tendency is toward the use of 2-inch 
pipe. As this fixture is usually subject to greater use than any other 
plumbing fixture of the house, and as much greasy matter enters it, 
even with the utmost care, 2-inch pipe is often preferable to i l / 2 inch. 

The vent for the trap of the kitchen sink should be' of i 1 /* -inch 
pipe. In connection with this fixture, especially in large residences, 
restaurants, boarding houses, or wherever a large amount of dish- 
washing and cooking is done, a grease trap will often serve the fix- 
ture much more satisfactorily than the ordinary trap. An illustra- 
tion and description of such a trap will be found under Plate 7. 
Sinks are generally set about 32 inches from the floor, this measure- 
ment being to the top of the sink. This height may be varied an 
inch either way, to suit the desires of the owner. As the kitchen 
sink is so much in use, and demands so much hot water, the prefer- 
ence in the matter of such supply should be given this fixture over 
all others. A quick supply of hot water may be secured by connect- 
ing the flow pipe from the range into the hot-water pipe at the top 
of the boiler instead of into the side of the boiler as generally done. 
This is of special value when hot water is required at the kitchen 
sink in the morning, the range fire having been allowed to go out 
the night before. 



TABLE OF SIZES OF CAST-IRON SINKS 

The following sizes are for plain, galvanized, and enameled cast- 
iron sinks, the depth of sink being 6 inches, and the dimensions in 
inches. 



12 X 12 


12 X 20 


14 X 22 


16 X 16 


12 X 14 


14 X 14 


14 X 24 


16 X 20 


12 X l6 


14 X 18 


14 X 26 


16 X 24 


12 X 18 


14 X 20 


15 X27 


16 X 28 



17 



18 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



16 X 30 


18X36 


20 X 40 


22 X 62 


16 x 36 


18 X42 


20 X 42 


22 X 76 


17 X 28 


20 X 20 


20 X 48 


23 X42 


17 x 30 


20 X 24 


20 X 60 


23X48 


17 X 35 


20 X 26 


20 x 72 


24X48 


18 X 18 


20 X 28 


21 X 4 2 


24 x 50 


18 X 24 


20 X 3° 


22 X 3 6 


24 X 80 


18 X 28 


20 X 32 


22 X 40 


24 X 120 


18 X 30 


20 X 36 


22 X 42 


26 x 52 


18X32 


20 X 38 


22 X 48 








The most satisfactory sizes of kitchen sinks for family use are, 
viz. : 18 X 36, 20 X 36, and 20 X 42. If space allows, 20 X 42 is 
the preferable size. Sinks 18 X 36 are largely used in the cheaper 
class of work. 

All sinks are cast with the bottom pitching toward the outlet 
and therefore there is no necessity of setting the sink so that its 
top is other than level. 

A valuable device for use in connection with the kitchen sink is 
the flexible wooden sink mat. This mat, being flexible, will fit into any 
sink, and in the case of enameled or porcelain sinks keeps the surface 
from being scratched by pots and kettles. It also prevents breakage 
in setting dishes, etc., into the bottom of the sink. 

VEGETABLE WASH SINK 

A fixture now much used in high-grade kitchen work of resi- 
dences, hotels, restaurants, clubs, etc., is the vegetable wash sink. 

This fixture is generally made of enameled cast iron or porcelain, 
and is provided with a standing overflow at one end, so that the water 
may fill the sink, which is of considerable depth, without flowing into 
the waste. 

The waste and vent for the vegetable wash sink are of the same 
size as for the kitchen sink. 

LAUNDRY TUBS 

Laundry tubs, or wash trays, are made of porcelain, enameled 
cast iron, soapstone, slate, and artificial stone. 

The connections for this fixture are shown in Plate L The 



LAUNDRY TUBS 19 

waste outlet from each section of the laundry tubs should be i l / 2 
inches in size. The main waste and trap for a two-part laundry tub 
may be iy 2 inches, and for laundry tubs of three to six sections, the 
main waste and trap should not be less than 2 inches in size. 

The vent from the trap of a set of laundry tubs should not be 
less than iy 2 inches in size. Formerly this fixture was made of 
wood, the several sections sometimes being lined with sheet metal. 
The use of the wooden laundry tubs or wooden sink should be pro- 
hibited, as the wood readily absorbs moisture and filth, and the fix- 
ture soon becomes unsanitary. 

For use in general work, such as for dwelling houses, and the 
less pretentious residences, laundry tubs either of slate or soapstone 
give excellent service. 

. Laundry tubs of artificial stone are much used in the cheaper 
grades of work, but often have the disadvantage of cracking and 
crumbling, especially if installed in cold places, where frost may work 
into the stone. A strong cement for mending artificial stone, slate, 
and soapstone tubs may be made of litharge and glycerine formed 
into a paste, which is very hard when it has set, and very durable. 

In many instances, especially in flats and apartment houses, 
the laundry tubs are located in the kitchen, close to the sink. When 
so located, it is customary in some sections to allow one trap to 
serve both fixtures. This is considered poor practice in any case, 
and especially when applied to such fixtures as the kitchen sink 
and laundry tubs. Each fixture should be separately trapped. Al- 
though the use of the drum trap is not popular in certain sections, 
in connection with laundry tubs it may be used to great advantage 
many times, for it can usually be located more advantageously than 
the S trap, and is of sufficient diameter to easily receive any number 
of waste pipes that may be required to enter it. In its use, a less 
length of fouled waste connection to the trap is able to throw impure 
odors into the room than in such a connection as shown in Plate I. 

COMBINATION SINK AND WASH TRAYS 

When the kitchen sink and laundry tubs are each to be located 
in the kitchen, and especially when it is necessary to economize space, 
the combination kitchen sink and laundry tub may be used to advan- 
tage. This fixture combines the two fixtures in one. 



20 • MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Connections for the combination sink and wash trays are shown 
by Fig. D, Plate I. The principles governing such a combination are 
no different than those to which the separate fixtures are subject. 
Such a fixture of course is the same as two fixtures, sink and wash 
trays, and therefore if it is lawful to connect these two fixtures into 
the same trap, it would also be correct to use but one trap for the 
combination fixture, and there is more justification in using only one 
trap than there would be if there was a greater number. 

In apartment buildings, the sink and wash trays are generally 
both located in the kitchen, but in houses of other design the wash 
trays are often elsewhere than in the kitchen. In the case of two- 
family houses, for instance, it is quite common to find both sets of 
wash trays located in the cellar. This is true also of single houses. 

As previously stated, it is important that the supply of hot water 
to the sink be ample and quickly obtained. This is also true of the 
other kitchen fixtures. To do this most advantageously, the hot water 
is circulated or returned to the boiler, thus providing constant flow 
of hot water at the fixtures, without the necessity of drawing off a 
large amount of cold water before it will run hot. 



Plate II 
LAVATORIES 






Connections 

for Lavatories 

-Main Vent 



Plate Z 




Lavatory 
Supported on 
Concealed 
Wall Hanger 




-Main Stack 
Fig. A 



Lavatory 
Supported by 
a Pair of 
Enameled or 

N. P Legs 



s 




I 



o 






Fig.C 




Lavatory 
Supported on 
Brackets 



Fig.B 

Corner Lavatory 

Supported on 

One Pedestal 

Lea 




Fig.D 



LAVATORIES 

Great changes have taken place in the design and construction of 
lavatories. 

Formerly they were constructed by setting or attaching a bowl 
to the under side of a marbte slab, with another piece of marble 
serving for the back of the fixture, and often an apron of marble on 
the front and sides. 

These marble lavatories were often handsome fixtures, but they 
have been almost entirely superseded by fixtures made of enameled 
cast iron or of porcelain. Much has been gained by this change, for 
the new fixtures are certainly more sanitary than the old ones. 

Marble lavatories presented great opportunity for the collection 
of filth in the joints and corners between the marble parts and between 
the bowl and the marble. Moreover, the bowl often became loose 
and had to be reset. 

The modern fixture, however, is cast in one piece, which includes 
both the back and the bowl, for which reason, there is no necessity of 
setting the bowl and therefore no possibility that it may become loose 
and require resetting. 

Being cast in one piece, there are no joints to fill up with filth. 
These are some of the reasons that enameled cast iron and porcelain 
lavatories are preferable to marble. Another reason is that the former 
are more beautiful than the marble lavatories, and far more capable 
of variety in design. In fact, there seems to be no limit to the number 
and style of designs for lavatories, and many of them are very 
beautiful. 

In Plates 2 and 2a are to be seen illustrations of several of the 
common types of lavatories, which however, give little idea as to their 
artistic excellence. 

These fixtures are shown supported in various ways, on con- 
cealed wall hangers, brackets, enameled or nickel plated legs, pedestal 
legs, and pedestals. They are made to fit into right-hand corners, as 
shown in Fig. D, Plate 2, and into left-hand corners, also into recesses 
of almost any reasonable width, as in Fig. E, Plate 2a. 

23 




24 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The waste from the lavatory is generally of ij4 inch pipe, but 
should never be as small as i inch, a size which is allowed in some 
sections of the country. The lavatory trap vent is of the same size 
as the waste. 

Lavatories should generally be set about 31 inches from the floor, 
although this height may of course be varied to suit the desires of 
the owner. 

Lavatory traps are more liable to stoppage, probably, than almost 
any other fixture, not from greasy matter, however, as in the case of 
the kitchen sink, but from soap, lint and hair. 

Formerly a large proportion of the traps used under lavatories 
were of the full-S pattern, with the waste dropping to the floor. 
Modern practice, however, calls for continuous venting, and as a 
horizontal outlet from the trap is required in this system of venting, 
it is clear that the S trap cannot be used. This fact has resulted in 
the use of half-S traps on nearly all lavatories that are provided with 
continuous vents. 

Elsewhere a full description is given of the advantages gained 
from continuous venting, as compared to the old style, crown venting. 

All the connections shown in Plates 2 and 2a have continuous 
vents, crown venting being now so much a thing of the past, and so 
far surpassed by continuous venting, that it does not seem best to 
show it as one of the present day methods. 

. The continuous vent is especially useful to the lavatory, as it 
makes the waste connections very much shorter than it is with the 
use of the S trap. Also, there is less of the work exposed to rough 
usage, and a separate entrance into the main soil or waste pipe may 
generally be secured. The latter advantage is a greater one than 
would at first appear, for it will be clear to the reader that when 
the S trap is used, and the waste carried to the floor, it is very 
generally connected into the lead bend, or branched into some other 
waste pipe, neither of these practices being as good as the separate 
connection of the lavatory waste directly into the main soil or waste 
pipe. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on having a separate en- 
trance into the main soil or waste line for such a fixture as a lavatory. 
It cannot always be done, but whenever possible the advantage of 
such connections should be secured. 

Lavatories are made in a great variety of sizes. In the follow- 
ing table are shown the common stock sizes: 



LAVATORIES 25 





SIZES OF LAVATORIES 




25x35 


20 X 26 


l8 X 21 


24 X 33 


20 X 24 


18 X 20 


22 X 33 


19 X 28 


17 X 19 


22 x 30 


19 X 24 


16 X 20 


22 X 27 


18 X 27 


16 X 19 




18X24 


14 X 16 



21 


X 


31 


20>^ 


X 


26 


20 


X 


26 



Corner lavatories can be obtained in the following sizes: 

SIZES OF CORNER LAVATORIES 

15 in. on a side. iSy 2 in. on a side. 

16 " " " " 19 " " " " 
l6 y 2 « « « « 20 « « « « 

17^ " " " " 
Recess lavatories are made in the following stock sizes : 

SIZES OF RECESS LAVATORIES 

18 X 24 

l6 X 21 

Barbers' lavatories are generally of the two-bowl type, and are 
made in the following sizes : 

SIZES OF BARBERS' LAVATORIES 

20 X 32 24 X 36 27 X 45 

22 X 38 27 X 44 

In addition to lavatories for general use, there are many special 
uses for lavatories, which call for special qualities in design and con- 
struction, some of these being prison, hospital, and school lavatories, 
such as shown by Fig. G, Plate 2a. 

Before leaving the subject of lavatories, it may not be uninterest- 
ing to say something concerning the old-time marble lavatory. 

Italian and Tennessee marble have the best qualities for lavatory 
use, and are the most beautiful. 

On good work, when marble lavatories are required, the top 
marble slab should generally be countersunk, and should have moulded 
edges. The thickness would generally be about 1% inches. 



Connections 

for Lavatories 



Plate 2 a 



M 



I L 



Recess 
Lavatory 



Pedestal 
Lavatory 




Fig.E 



Fig.F 



P<=» 




Barbers 

Double 

Lavatory 




Fig. G. 



LAVATORIES 27 

The backs and ends for marble lavatories may be 8, 10, 12, 14, 

18 or 20 inches in height. 

The standard sizes of marble lavatory slabs are, viz. : 19 X 24, 
20 X 24, 20 X 26, 20 X 28, 20 X 3°> 22 X 28, 22 X 3°> and 22 X 3 6 - 

Needless to say, on the best work, the larger sizes of slabs are 
used, with high backs and sides. 

In connection with the subject of marble work, the making of 
marble cements may be of interest. 

Portland cement withstands water, as also a cement made by 
soaking plaster-of-paris in a saturated solution of alum, the mixture 
being baked and ground into a powder, and applied by mixing with 
water. This cement is capable of being polished and may be colored 
to match the marble. 

- Joints on marble work may also be satisfactorily filled with a 
putty made of litharge and glycerine, although this cement was orig- 
inally made for repairing wash trays. 

There are many recipes for removing grease stains from marble, 
one of which is the following, said to give good results : 

Mix 1 part of powdered chalk, 1 part of pumice and 2 parts of 
soda into a paste with water. Apply this paste to the surface of 
the marble, afterwards washing it off with soapy water. 

Rust stains are much harder to remove from marble than grease 
stains. In fact, rust stains can generally be removed only by rubbing 
off the marble until the stains have been removed. This, of course, 
destroys the polish of the marble. Pumice stone is the best material 
for wearing down the stained marble. 

A new polish may be obtained with a piece of soft leather, using 
fine bolted whiting or very fine pumice and water. 

THE PANTRY SINK 

Pantry sinks commonly in use are made of sheet copper; the 
higher grades are of enameled cast iron and of porcelain. 

A very satisfactory pantry sink may be constructed by lining a 
wooden box, of proper dimensions, with white metal. The back and 
drain boards should also be lined with the same material. This work 
requires the services of a skilled workman, for it is a difficult matter 
to lay the metal smoothly and to finish the joints and seams so that 
they may be as nearly invisible as possible. 






28 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Many of the more pretentious residences now have a breakfast 
room in addition to the dining room, each being provided with its 
own special pantry sink. 

The size of waste for the pantry sink should be i^ inch; the 
size of trap vent should also be iy 2 inch. 

The pantry sink should be set so that the top of the sink is about 
32 inches from the floor. 



Plate III 
BATHS 



Connections 

for Bath Tubs 



Plate 3 



^J 



EC 



:s 



Fig. A 



-O 



23 



^ 



fc. 



^n 




1 



Fig.B 



T0 



^•^ 



f&7&* 



Fig.D 



Cast Iron 
Drum Trap 




X=P 



ChilcLs 
Bath 




I' 'I 



THE BATH TUB 

The bath tub is another plumbing fixture that has seen great 
changes in recent years. 

From the dingy, sheathed-in copper bath tub, to the magnificent 
and massive porcelain tub of today, is a long distance to travel. 

This old form of tub presented much opportunity for the collec- 
tion of filth, and was not nearly so cleanly a fixture as the modern tub. 

The introduction of open plumbing did away with the sheathed-in 
bath tub, and the next style of fixture to make its appearance was 
a type known as the steel-clad. 

This tub had a steel body with a copper lining, and generally 
a hardwood rail around the top, and was supported on ornamental 
cast-iron legs. A cheaper grade of this same type of tub was made 
of sheet steel, enamel painted. 

These fixtures have been almost entirely superseded by porcelain 
or cast iron enameled bath tubs having a wide roll rim. The better 
grades of these tubs are very beautiful fixtures, and even the less 
expensive styles give the bath room a very neat and pleasing ap- 
pearance. 

The regular sizes of bath tubs are, viz. : 4 ft., 4 ft. 6 in., 5 ft., 
5 ft. 6 in., and 6 ft. 

As a general thing, "the two shortest sizes are used only where 
lack of space makes it necessary, and are much too short for the 
comfort of the bather. 

The waste pipe of the bath tub should be 1 ]/ 2 inch, also the vent. 

In Plate 3 there are shown connections for the common type of 
bath tub and for other less common types of baths. 

Bath tubs may be obtained to fit into right-hand and into left-hand 
corners, and to build into recesses. 

While both half S, three-quarter S and drum traps can be used 
in connection with the bath tub, the drum trap seems to have given 
greatest satisfaction, and is much used. A better pitch can be ob- 
tained on the outlet from the drum trap in many' cases, than from 
the S trap. Owing to the character of the fixture, the cleanout of 
the drum trap is much more accessible than that of the S trap. 

31 



Connections 

for Shower Baths 



Plate 3 a 



k 



z 




^J 



Fig. A 



SI 



Fig. B 



n 




Strainer 



^t 



Bottom of Shower 
/ Bath Recepto r 






:._>.-•' .-o.^ • 



Drain ffole- 




, 'Q '*' ci 



-C Z Pazi' 



53 ^ ^ 



THE BATH TUB 33 

A nickel plated spun brass cover is screwed down to the floor 
over the cleanout of the drum trap, making it accessible from the 
bath room, whereas the flooring has to be removed in many cases to 
get to the cleanout of the S trap. 

In Fig. .B there is shown a method of providing an accessible 
cleanout for the S trap when used on the bath tub. 

A large proportion of bath tubs are provided with the common 
connected waste and overflow, such as shown in Fig. A, but the better 
grades more often have the standing waste, such as shown in the 
other illustrations of Plate 3. 

Much nickel plated work is used in connection with the bath 
tub, and the wastes and bath cocks are often very beautiful. Orig- 
inally the best work called for Fuller bath cocks, which were largely 
used for many years. This type of cock closes very quickly, and 
checks the flow of water so suddenly that pounding of the pipes results, 
which is not only annoying, but bad for the piping. Because of this 
trouble, Fuller work has almost entirely disappeared. High grade 
compression work succeeded it, and within a few years the modern 
quick-compression work has come into extensive use. This type of 
cock has not proven altogether satisfactory, however, for it has a 
tendency to open a trifle after being closed off, allowing the water to 
drip. 

It seems after all then, that really the most satisfactory type of 
bibb or cock is the regular compression, when properly constructed 
out of high-grade material. 

The supply pipes for bath tubs, as well as for other fixtures, 
should be of iron pipe size, rather than of tubing, as the former can 
be screwed into the iron supply piping, while the tubing must be 
connected to it by means of solder joints, which are more expensive 
and not so reliable. 

FOOT BATH — SITZ BATH — CHILD'S BATH 

These three baths are shown in Plate 3a. These fixtures are 
not found to any great extent except in the homes of the wealthy. In 
other words, while they are not necessities as the common bath tub is, 
they are convenient and desirable if money is of no consequence. The 
other side of the subject is that they represent just so much more 
bath room equipment to take care of and to keep in repair. 



34 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

There is nothing about the connections for these three fixtures 
that is different from the regular bath tub connections. The waste 
and vent in each case should not be less than iV 2 inch. 



THE SHOWER BATH 

The shower bath generally to be found in the ordinary private 
bath room, is shown in Plate 3a. 

It consists of a shallow tub or receptor, either supported on legs, 
as in Fig. A, or setting on the floor, as in Fig. B. 

These fixtures are of enameled cast iron or porcelain, around 
which the necessary piping is arranged, the whole being enclosed with 
rubber curtains. 

Two-inch is the proper connection for the shower bath, with 
vent i J / 2 inch. Sometimes ij^-inch waste connections are used, but 
this size seems too small. 

Ordinarily the drum trap is used in connection with the shower 
bath, although there is nothing against the use of the P trap. 

Fig. B shows a specially designed trap for the shower bath re- 
ceptor, it being provided with a strainer, and having a 2-inch outlet. 

In Fig. C is shown what is known as a double-drainage shower 
bath drain, which by the way may also be used as a floor drain very 
effectively, the advantages of which are as follows : ■ In the use of 
ordinary drains, waste water often leaks around the outer edge, be- 
tween the body of the drain and the surrounding tile or cement. This 
naturally results in damage to the ceiling below. The extended cast 
iron pan of the device which we are describing, will catch any such 
leakage, and carry it through the small drain holes shown, into the 
main body of the drain. 

This device is a good example of the thought that has been put 
into every detail of plumbing construction, and of the excellent results 
achieved. 



Plate IV 



WATER CLOSET CONNECTIONS 



C nnech°n$ f<*r 



<&IZL<§JS <&02Z2z 



<57Izs.c52e 5Pi7z>e 



\ 

72&Q223 

SfocJs 




22SQ22S 



£>ead J&eizd. 



yenf/ncp <=>f Wafer 



Vezaf 



VeisZ-ed. 




C/oseAs 

<£je>ec2o! £°22g J—l 
jgerej3/<&2//223Q u 

Z/TSojjs <£/oc2e 
778 02 73 Ve7zf 



c§02zifor^f o7ee 
F'9* 





WATER CLOSETS 



Without going into the history of the water closet, it is suffi- 
cient to say that the water closet having a low-down tank has now 
very generally displaced the high-tank combination. 

The latter is shown in Plate 4 and the former in Plate 5. 

The design of the water closet for use with the low-down tank 
is different from those used with the high tank, but the waste con- 
nections are the same. 

The water closet as generally installed, wastes through a 4-inch 
lead- bend, although lead bends are in many instances being displaced 
by cast-iron bends. 

The lead bend or pipe, as the case may be, is connected by a wiped 
joint to a brass ferrule, which is caulked into the cast-iron soil pipe, 
and the floor connection generally made by means of floor flanges 
of various kinds, the latter being considered under Plate 17. Con- 
nection of water closets into wrought-iron soil pipe is shown under 
Plate 45. 

The lead bend is generally connected into a T-Y or modified 
form of this fitting, two of which are shown in Figs. A and B, in 
addition to which there are many others. 

When the elevated water closet tank is used, it should be of seven 
gallons capacity, although smaller sizes are used on cheap work. 

The bottom of the elevated tank should be about 6 ft. from the 
floor, and the flush pipe to the bowl never less than i*4 inch, as this 
size orifice is required to deliver the required volume of water with 
the necessary rapidity. 

The flush pipe may be rigidly connected to the bowl, or the con- 
nection may be flexible. The latter is preferable, as any settling of 
floors or movement of the fixture is liable to break off the connection 
to the bowl if the connection is rigid. 

The flush tank should always be provided with -a flush valve of 
the siphon pattern. In the use of this valve, simply a slight pull on 
the chain is needed to flush the entire contents of the tank, while in 
the use of the ordinary flush valve the flushing of the water closet 
continues only so long as the chain is pulled down. The flush may 

37 



38 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

be operated in many other ways than by a chain and pull — by the 
weight of the person using the fixture; by the opening or closing 
of the door ; by means of a push button operating a crank or lever to 
which the chain is attached. The latter method allows the tank to 
be concealed behind walls or partitions. This method not only allows 
the unsightly high tank to be concealed, but also enables the working 
parts of the flush tank to be located in such a place that mischievous 
or ignorant people are unable to destroy or damage them in any way, 
an evil often encountered in public toilet rooms. 

THE VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS 

The vent from the water closet should be 2 in. in size, but never 
of smaller size. 

The vent pipe is usually connected to the lead bend, but should 
never be connected to the crockery itself, as such a connection must 
necessarily be rigid, and the settling of floors, slight movement of 
the fixture, etc., will result in breaking off the vent horn. 

When connected to the lead bend the vent should always be 
taken from the top of the horizontal part of the bend — never from 
the vertical part, as when so constructed it is much more liable to 
stoppage. 

Fig. A shows an excellent method of venting from the vent hub 
of a vented T-Y, a common stock fitting, the vent pipe being of 
cast or wrought iron. 

Fig. B shows the use of special waste and vent fittings, of which 
numerous styles are now on the market. 

This waste fitting is so arranged that the branch to the fixture 
enters the side of the main body of the fitting, thus allowing the fix- 
ture to set closer to the wall than is possible with the waste fitting 
of Fig. A. Work such as shown in these two illustrations is 
growing in favor, and serves to show the decadence of lead work 
and the increase in the use of cast and wrought iron in plumbing 
construction. 

Venting being employed chiefly to prevent the siphonage of fix- 
ture traps, it is unnecessary to vent a water closet which is located 
close to its stack and in a position secure from siphonic influences. 
A water closet set close to the stack, on the top floor, and without 
other fixtures on that floor wasting into the same stack, is an example 



THE VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS 39 

of this. A water closet located at a considerable distance from its 
stack, however, should always be vented, for through the long hori- 
zontal connection the waste would necessarily move slowly, particu- 
larly if the pipe were nearly level, and an obstruction, such as might 
be caused by paper, etc., might result in setting the water back suffi- 
ciently to fill the pipe, and this body of water in flowing out might 
create sufficient suction to partially or entirely destroy the seal of 
the water-closet trap. 

In the case of fixtures located on floors above the water closet 
the influence of siphonic conditions may also be felt, for as waste 
from these fixtures descends in large volume past the entrance of 
the lead bend, the air becomes somewhat exhausted, and is not renewed 
quickly enough to prevent a part of the trap seal being siphoned or 
sucked out. 

This loss may amount to but a few drops, but when continued 
indefinitely may result in the complete loss of seal, aided, as it often 
is, by additional loss due to evaporation in the case of fixtures seldom 
used. 

As far as the siphonage of the water-closet trap is concerned, 
this danger is less to be feared than in connection with smaller traps, 
for the reason that to produce siphonage of a column of water 4 
inches in diameter requires much stronger influences than to produce 
the same result on smaller traps. 

Nevertheless, the water-closet trap is probably much more sub- 
ject to siphonage than it is generally supposed to be, and if strict 
ordinances regarding its protection were not established and enforced, 
the trouble arising from this cause would be much more extensive 
than it now is. 

There is probably no part of the plumbing system which occa- 
sions so much trouble as the ball cock which supplies the water-closet 
flush tank with water. 

Two styles of ball cock are in use, the bottom supply- and the 
top supply. 

Bottom supply makes neater looking work, but in other respects 
the advantage seems to be with the top supply. 

In the bottom supply the ball cock is located at the bottom of 
the tank, while in the top supply it is at the top, and therefore much 
more accessible in the event of repairs. This is especially true of 
tanks located close to ceilings. 



4 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Under these conditions, if provided with a bottom supply, the 
tank must be taken down to repair the ball cock, while in the case 
of top supply it can usually be repaired without such inconvenience. 
Ball cocks may be further divided into two classes, direct and indi- 
rect pressure. The indirect pressure ball cock, which is commonly 
used and least expensive, is generally provided with a 5 or 6 inch 
copper ball, which closes the valve by its buoyancy. The direct pres- 
sure ball cock works on another principle than the indirect, the water 
being conducted to the rear of the plunger, thereby adding the force 
of the water pressure to the buoyancy of the float in closing the 
valve. In the direct pressure ball cock, a heavy ball or float must 
be used, as a considerable weight is necessary to enable the ball cock 
to open against pressure. The light copper ball used on the indirect 
pressure ball cock would be inadequate to perform this duty. 

Glass floats are now much in favor in connection with ball cocks, 
as they provide sufficient weight and are more durable than the copper 
floats which are now largely used. 

As a result of keen competition, copper floats are now largely 
made of sheet copper that is so thin that it can withstand almost no 
rough usage. 

Some of the necessary requirements in a ball cock is that it shall 
be as nearly noiseless as possible, quick closing, easy to repair, of 
simple construction, and made of a high grade of metal free from 
impurities, so that the water may not act chemically upon the valve 
seat and destroy it. 






Plate V 



THE LOW-DOWN WATER CLOSET— FLUSH 
VALVES— WATER CLOSET RANGES 



P/of-z 5. 
Connections for 

Low- Down Wafer- Closer 










a 



I 



77&Q2 2Z 



Wafer Closer Operated by 
Flushing l/a/ is e 



<£71u<5k2izg 
Vol ve 



F=* 




G5uje>js>7y ^ij&e 



77§02 2Z 

<3focJe 



Vemt 



773 02IZ 



THE LOW-DOWN WATER CLOSET 

As already stated, the low-down water closet has almost entirely 
displaced the high-tank closet. Some of the advantages of this style 
of water closet are, viz. : the flush tank is more accessible, and, being 
covered, prevents dust, dirt, etc., from entering the tank and doing- 
harm to the valves; and, because of the small elevation required, it 
may be used in many places where the high tank could not be used. 

The low-down tank, however, requires the setting of the water 
closet further out into the room. 

With the exception of the differences in the flushing arrange- 
ment, the principles that apply to the high-tank water closet also 
apply to the low-down style. 

The flush of the low-down water closet as it enters the bowl has 
very little head, while in the case of the high tank it has a head due 
to an elevation of 6 ft. This lack is made up by providing a much 
larger flush pipe, in order that a large volume of water may enter 
the bowl with sufficient rapidity to produce siphonage. A water 
closet of the siphon pattern should be used in connection with the 
low-down tank, as enough water cannot enter to produce good results 
except by siphonage. 



OPERATION OF THE WATER CLOSET BY FLUSH 

VALVE 

The flush valve is a comparatively recent device, introduced 
for the purpose of flushing the water closet without the use of the 
flush tank. 

Urinals and slop sinks may also be flushed by the same device. 

The advantages of the flush valve are many. It may be operated 
on direct or tank pressure, on high and low pressure; it is noiseless; 
it may easily be concealed; it may be made to work automatically; 
and it may be used in many places and under many conditions where 
it would be very difficult and unsatisfactory to use a tank closet. 

43 



44 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

It is used very extensively in public buildings, in marine work, 
and in high-class residence work. 

The subject of the application of the flush valve is considered 
further under Plate 42. 



WATER CLOSET RANGE 

While range closets are not to be compared with individual 
water closets as sanitary fixtures, the high-grade modern range 
closets represent a great step in advance of the old-style range. The 
great objection to the range water closet is that soil entering one of 
the compartments is not carried away at once, as soon as the use of 
it has ceased, but must remain until the flush for the entire range 
operates. During this interval it is throwing out into the room foul 
odors, and when this same thing is occurring in the case of a num- 
ber of compartments it can plainly be seen that the range water closet 
is not so conducive to the maintaining of a clean, sanitary toilet room 
as is the individual water closet with its immediate flush. The flush 
of the individual water closet, moreover, is more effective than that 
of a range, and there is less liability of fouled surfaces in the former. 
The range water closet consists in general of a long trough, directly 
into which the several seats open. In the modern range this trough 
may be above the floor or below it. In the latter case, the bowl of 
each compartment has the appearance, to those not familiar with the 
subject, of being an ordinary individual water closet. A closer inves- 
tigation, however, will show that it is not what it first appears to be. 

The range closets now used are generally automatically flushed, 
the flush operating at stated intervals. This interval may be made 
longer or shorter by operating the valve on the supply pipe to 
the tank. 

Most ranges are now provided with an automatic siphon which 
is started when the flush enters the range, and continues until the 
water in the flush tank drops to such a level that air is admitted to 
a pipe communicating with the crown of the siphon. This breaks the 
siphon, and the rest of the water that enters the range remains there 
until the next flush. 

This water prevents the surface of the range trough from becom- 
ing fouled. 



WATER CLOSET RANGE 45 

The action of the automatic flush and siphon is strong, and 
very satisfactory. 

The best feature of the modern range water closets, however, is 
the local vent which is provided with many of them. At the end of 
the range a 12 or 14-in. opening is provided with a collar to which 
the local vent pipe is attached, and the latter carried into a heated 
flue. Such a flue should not fail to be heated throughout the year. 

The action of the local vent under a strong draught is very 
effective in the use of the range water closet. The draught draws 
impure air into the range through each seat opening, not only carry- 
ing it out of the toilet room, but preventing the odors occasioned by 
the use of the fixture from rising into the room. 

The range water closet should not be used without a strong- 
acting local vent. Modern range water closets are generally of 
enamel-lined or porcelain ware, which is far more cleanly for the pur- 
pose than cast iron, such as was formerly much used. Of the modern 
styles of ranges, the type in which the seat opens into the range 
trough through a short bowl attached to the trough is preferable to 
the longer bowl, which presents greater opportunity for fouling. The 
latter is a serious matter in connection with the range water closet, 
as there is no flush around the bowl as in the individual water closet. 
Many cities prohibit the use of range closets, and this is a proper 
regulation, as the toilet rooms of schools, factories, etc., where the 
range is mostly used, are difficult to maintain in a cleanly condition 
at best, and the use of individual water closets reaches the desired 
end much more satisfactorily. 



Plate VI 



THE SLOP SINK— URINAL-BIDET 



C&nmcfiorjs for 

Slop Sink 



J3oc2z 



P/ofe 6. 



773,0275 



d7ro/s> 

<£>ro72dord. 

CI e. ojs &zz/ — - 




77& a 2 iz 
Vezzf 



I7&Q2 2Z 



tt 



yese/ 



77(d0273 



f&\ 




<$72lZ<£>2z 

C°nnecfi°n^s for 
Urinals 



U"j^273o2 C<=>cJs' 



<£Jofe 



v5^ 




THE SLOP SINK 



The best forms of slop sink are those of enamel lined or porce- 
lain ware. 

Owing to the nature of the waste which enters it the slop sink 
becomes a very foul and unsanitary fixture unless properly con- 
structed. The most approved type is that having a flushing rim and 
provided with a flush tank. As the water enters the slop sink through 
the flushing rim its entire surface is thoroughly flushed and cleansed. 
The use of plain cast-iron slop sinks, flushed only by means of a 
common faucet, is very poor practice indeed. Such a fixture it is 
impossible to keep in a sanitary condition, and a foul-smelling room 
must result from its use. 

The waste of the slop sink should be 3 in. in size ; the size of the 
vent should be 2 in. The best form of trap for this fixture is one 
which is enameled over its entire interior and exterior surfaces, and 
which presents no metal surfaces which may corrode and foul. The 
slop-sink trap should be provided with a 2-in. cleanout, and it is 
excellent practice to provide a cleanout, when possible, at the end of 
the horizontal waste from the fixture, as shown in Plate 6. 

The opening of the vent into the slop-sink trap is large and not 
so liable to stoppage as the vent opening of lead traps of smaller size. 
An excellent trap of comparatively recent construction is the adjust- 
able slop-sink trap. It is of the half-S pattern, attached to a standard 
resting on the floor in the usual manner. The height of the outlet 
above the floor can be adjusted by means of a nipple, to meet rough- 
ing requirements, and the trap being of the half-S type, the continu- 
ous vent may be used in connection with it. On high-grade work 
the slop sink is often provided with a local vent. 

This local vent should be of the same size as the local vent of 
the water closet; it should enter a heated flue, and in other respects 
be installed in a manner similar to the local vent of the water closet. 
When the slop sink is of the flushing-rim type, and is provided with 
a flush tank of adequate size and also local vent, it may be made a 

49 



5 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

very sanitary fixture. The size of the slop-sink flush tank should be 
of 5 gallons capacity. In addition to the type of fixture described 
above, the waste-preventive slop hopper is used to a limited extent. 
This fixture is flushed automatically by the emptying of slops 
into it, the flushing being accomplished by the creation of a vacuum 
which produces siphonage. As intimated above, however, this fixture 
is used only to a limited extent. 



THE URINAL 

The form of urinal shown in Plate 6 is the Bedfordshire lip 
urinal with flat back. This is undoubtedly the urinal most com- 
monly in use. This fixture is made in a great variety of forms, sev- 
eral of which are shown in Plate 43. 

The waste of the lip urinal should be not less than i 1 /* in. in 
size, although a waste 2 in. in size is now sometimes used. 

The vent should be 1^ in. in size. 

The urinal should be set so that the lip comes about 24 in. from 
the floor. This height should be less when the urinal is used in toilet 
rooms for small boys. 

All lip urinals should be of the flushing rim type. The flushing 
rim allows the entire surface of the interior to be thoroughly cleansed 
at each flush. The lip urinal may be flushed as shown in Plate 6, 
the flush being under direct pressure, and operated by means of a 
urinal cock attached to the top of the urinal. It may also be flushed 
from a tank serving a single fixture or a group. This flush tank 
may be of the automatic type, flushing the group of urinals at regular 
intervals. 

Owing to the conditions surrounding the use of the urinal, the 
known carelessness of many of the people using it, and the character 
of the waste entering it, the partitions, backs, and flooring should 
never be of wood or of any material which may corrode. When 
wood is used for these purposes it soon absorbs moisture with its 
impurities, and in a short time becomes very unsanitary. Slate is 
the proper and commonly used material for this purpose. A form 
of urinal, which is not shown in Plate 43, is the waste-preventive 
urinal, which works in a manner similar to that of the waste-pre- 
ventive slop hopper. The fixture is of such sensitive action that the 



THE BIDET 51 

entrance of urine into the trap acts to form a vacuum which produces 
siphonage and the immediate operation of the flush. This fixture is 
not in extensive use, however, although an excellent device. 



THE BIDET 

The bidet is a fixture of comparatively recent origin, and, 
although not commonly in use, its use is increasing. 

It is a bath-room or toilet-room fixture, and to be found prin- 
cipally in the bath room or ladies' toilet rooms of pretentious resi- 
dences. The bidet is similar in shape to the water closet. 

The waste for the bidet should be 1^2 in., and the vent of the 
same size. 

Owing to the purpose for which it is designed, however, the 
supply to the bidet is of a much different character than that of 
the water closet. Both hot and cold water should be supplied to the 
bidet, entering the fixture through its side and rising inside the bowl 
in the form of a jet and douche. 

The supply also passes through the flushing rim in order to 
thoroughly cleanse the fixture. In connection with the bidet, a mixer, 
similar in character to the valve on shower baths, is generally used. 
This allows either hot or cold water, or water of any degree of 
warmth to be used. Such valves should be of some non-scalding 
oattern. 



_. 



Plate VII 



THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK- 
THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 



_ L r P/are ?. 

Connecr/°ns for 

H^hzl <*r Resrauranf S/nk 



I2<ga±7G Ve,j?./ 



r^l 



77&az2?, ^focJe. 



(giieJk £$acJs 



i ^ 

i i 



C<=>ld \ 
Wa/<sjr 

X 

a. 



»=> 



4E> 



^S^t 



7 



Qjrea<$e 



C°2d Wafer* 
/ IzzZe/- 




Grease Trap 



C^rer H5 



C°2d ^ 
Wafer 



/ 

7Va<s/-e 
Izel&f 



@l 



' : SS35ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZK£S& 



O 



^ 



C~2d 7Ta/er\ 




5 



□ 



(Outlet 



V x s ^ s N s ^ x s ^ s V -j Ji'K V I V ^ -^ V -^ V V «, V ^tA 



C<*2d 'rvaf-ez* Iislef 






THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK 

The waste and vent pipes of the ordinary kitchen sink are gen- 
erally i Yz in. in size. The waste and vent of the kitchen sink, when 
used in hotel, restaurant, boarding house, and club kitchens, or when 
used in other public or private establishments which call for its almost 
constant use, should never be less than 2 in. in size. The amount of 
greasy matter entering such sinks is very great, even when the utmost 
precaution is used, and it is very necessary to so construct the work 
in connection with such a sink that stoppage shall have the least 
possible opportunity. It is a well-known fact that when sewage con- 
taining grease comes in contact with a cold surface, the grease will 
separate from the sewage and adhere to such surface^ This often 
occurs in soil and waste pipes, the pipes running through cellars 
being cold and therefore well calculated to collect grease. When the 
grease begins to collect it continues to increase in thickness, until in 
time the entire bore of the pipe is filled. The collection of grease 
practically forms a body of hard soap in the pipe, and a stoppage of 
such nature cannot be dislodged by ordinary means of forcing stop- 
pages, but necessitates taking down the pipe and clearing out each 
length. 

For this reason, on horizontal lines of waste from sinks used in 
hotels, restaurants, etc., a cleanout should be inserted at intervals 
of ten feet in the piping. 

Money put into cleanouts on such work as this is always well 
invested, as their use will eventually avoid the necessity of taking 
down the waste piping, an expensive undertaking. 

■ 

THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 

When conditions are such that a great amount of grease neces- 
sarily enters the kitchen-sink waste, it is necessary to use a grease 
trap, a form of which is to be seen in Fig. 7, this form representing 
the best type of such traps. 

As already stated, contact with cold surfaces causes the grease 

55 



56 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

in sewage to separate from the liquid, a fact which is made use of in 
the operation of this or any other grease trap. The body of the trap 
is surrounded entirely by a water jacket or chamber, with the excep- 
tion of the top. In addition, the partition in the center of the trap, 
which is designed to aid in breaking up the sewage and deflecting 
the grease upward, is also formed into a water chamber. 

The water pipe supplying the kitchen sink is connected at the 
inlet and outlet ends of this water jacket, cold water thus flowing 
through the jacket constantly and changing whenever water is drawn 
at the sink. If the jacket were simply filled with water and not 
changed there would be no cooling effect, but the method described 
keeps the surfaces against which the waste comes in contact always 
cool, resulting effectively in the separation of the grease, which rises 
to the top and is taken out through the removable cover. The trap 
outlet is made at the bottom of the trap, instead of at the top, to aid 
in preventing the escape of the grease. 

The partition through the center of the trap also helps to pre- 
vent grease entering the trap from being carried over into the outlet. 

While the water jacket surrounding the trap does effective work, 
a large part of the results obtained is due to the presence of the hol- 
low partition or deflector. This trap is of cast iron and made in 
several sizes. 

Less expensive and less satisfactory grease traps are made on 
the same general lines as the trap just described, but not provided 
with a water jacket. Many of them do very good work, but it is not 
to be expected that they can hold back as large a part of the grease 
as the trap does which is cooled continuously by the water supply. 
There is one point in the use of the grease trap which does not always 
receive consideration — the amount of money to be derived from the 
sale of grease coming from the grease trap. In large establishments 
this is often a very respectable sum of money. Traps similar in 
design to the one described are also made of wrought steel. Cast 
iron, however, would seem to be less in danger of deterioration than 
wrought steel, which is more easily acted upon by acids. The grease 
trap, on a larger scale, in the form of a catch basin, is sometimes 
located outside the building, underground, and into this receptacle 
all the kitchen waste from kitchen sinks, pantry sinks, dishwashing 
sinks, etc., is discharged. The great advantage gained in the use 
of such a catch basin is that it is constantly cooled by the moisture of 



THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 



57 



the ground in which it is located. It should always be set low enough 
in the ground to be out of danger of freezing. If it is impossible to 
so install it, the catch basin should never be used. A serious disad- 
vantage in the use of the underground catch basin is that generally 
its use necessitates a long line of horizontal waste pipe from the 
kitchen to the catch basin, and in this pipe and its connections grease 
has abundant opportunity to collect before reaching the catch basin, 
resulting in the ultimate stoppage of such pipes. 

These pipes generally run in cool cellars and for a distance under- 
ground, which favors the collection of more or less of the grease on 
their surfaces. The better plan would seem to be the use of grease 
traps under the fixtures in the kitchen, with systematic attention given 
to the removal of grease that accumulates. 

-In the case of a line of kitchen sinks or of dishwashing sinks, 
one grease trap of proper size may be used for the accommodation 
of the entire number of fixtures. Catch basins for kitchen waste 
may be of brick or cast iron, and should never be less than 30 in. in 
internal diameter, tapering toward the top, if desired, to about 22 to 
24 in., and provided with a cast-iron cover. If of brick, they should 
be made water-tight. The drain from the kitchen catch basin to the 
sewer may be of glazed tile, and should be not less than 5 in. in 
diameter and provided with a trap having a deep seal. 



Plate VIII 

REFRIGERATORS— SAFE WASTES— TANK 
OVERFLOW— SPECIAL WASTES 



Plate 8 



Connections 

for Refrigerators 



3. 




Sink with 
Water Supply^ 




a 



>=>gj n $ A 






s 



r~: — i 



Fig.C 



Main 
Waste 
Stack- 




^^ Ft 9-B 



Main 
Vent Stack 



O 



Floor Drain 




X 






REFRIGERATORS 

Refrigerators should never, under any condition, be directly 
connected to any part of the drainage system. 

This restriction makes it necessary to provide connections for 
the refrigerator on an entirely different principle from those of the 
regular plumbing fixtures. The refrigerator should drip into a pan 
beneath it, which should be trapped, the waste from the trap dripping 
into an open sink. 

The sink should be trapped and vented in the usual manner, and 
may be connected to any soil or waste pipe. 

The use of the drum trap is good practice, as it may easily be 
cleaned of the slime and sawdust which collects in considerable quan- 
tity. It also has a much deeper seal to withstand evaporation when 
the refrigerator is out of use. 

The methods shown in Figs. A and B amply protect the refrig- 
erator, for there is not only the trap usually found inside the 
refrigerator, and the other two traps, but also the two breaks in the 
connections. 

The outlet from the refrigerator trap should discharge as far 
from the sink outlet as possible. It is preferable to drip into a sink 
in common use, as the renewal of its trap seal is ensured, but if 
impracticable, a special sink may be employed. 

It is permissible also to discharge the refrigerator waste into a 
cellar-floor drain, yard drain, or into a trap provided with a receiv- 
ing funnel. In the latter case it is necessary to provide a brass screw 
cover or a gate valve for closing the trap when the refrigerator is 
not in use. 

The waste from the refrigerator should never be less than \ Y /\ 
in. in size. Short wastes and traps may be of lead, but long lines 
should be of galvanized wrought iron. 

The refrigerator waste should have as sharp a grade as possible. 

Fig. C represents a desirable form of refrigerator drip pan. 
The box is lined with metal, formed so that all drippings entering 
the pan flow toward the outlet, which is provided with a strainer and 

61 



62 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

brass screw cover, the latter for use when the refrigerator is not 
being used. 

The requirements for refrigerators apply also to ice boxes, or 
any other receptacle for food or provisions which it is necessary 
to drain. 



SAFE WASTES— TANK OVERFLOW 

Wastes from safes, drip pans, etc., should not be directly con- 
nected to any part of the drainage system. 

Such wastes should discharge into a sink or laundry tub, cellar- 
floor drain, or deep seal trap. 

The lower end of such a pipe should have a brass flap valve to 
prevent the passage of cellar air. 

The overflow from the attic tank or other similar tank should 
not be directly connected to the drainage system, but should be dis- 
charged upon the roof or into an open fixture. It is often convenient 
to discharge this overflow into the flush tank of a water closet on a 
floor below the tank. This overflow should never be less than 1*4 in. 
in size, and 1^2 -in. pipe is often better. 



FLOOR DRAINS AND DRIPS FROM ICE HOUSES, ETC. 

Floor drains, etc., used for the draining of ice houses, refrig- 
erator rooms, storage rooms for provisions, etc., or for draining any 
room where food is prepared, should not be directly connected to 
the drainage system, but should discharge into an open catch basin 
or trapped sink located outside the building, the outer end of the pipe 
being provided with a brass flap valve. 



LAUNDRY WASTE— CREAMERY WASTE 

The waste from washing machinery in laundries, from similar 
machines in breweries and other establishments where a large volume 
of water is constantly used, and from receptacles and sinks used in 
creameries, may be discharged onto the floor, provided it is water- 
tight, properly graded, and provided with a suitable floor drain. 




Plate IX 



REFRIGERATOR LINES— BAR AND SODA- 
FOUNTAIN SINKS — EXHAUSTS — 
BLOW-OFFS, ETC. 



Plate 9 
Connections for Line of 

Refrigerators and Bar Sink 








Clean- 
oat 



^Waste 
from 
Line of 
Refrige- 
rators 



Brass Flap ValveJ 



Fig.B 



Bar S'irik 



tk 



=-T 



^t xD 



Flg.C 



REFRIGERATOR LINES 

The size of a line of waste pipe serving refrigerators on two 
floors should be at least i% in., for three or four floors iy 2 in., and 
for more than four floors 2 in. 

Galvanized wrought-iron pipe is generally used for this work, 
and all branches from this pipe should be made by means of forty- 
five-degree Y-branches. 

Refrigerator traps do not require venting, as no conditions are 
present to cause siphonage of their contents. 

The waste pipe which serves a line of refrigerators should in no 
case be connected direct to the plumbing system, but should dis- 
charge in the same manner as the single refrigerator, as described 
under Plate 8. All changes in direction and all offsets on the refrig- 
erator waste pipe should be provided with full-size cleanouts. 

Refrigerator pipes should never discharge upon the cellar floor 
or bottom, and wherever sewage privileges exist they should not 
drip onto the ground. However, if necessary to discharge upon the 
ground, such discharge should not take place within three feet of 
the foundation walls, unless into a tight gutter. 

Each refrigerator connecting into a line of waste pipe should be 
separately trapped, with its branch waste as short and direct as pos- 
sible. The main line should be carried directly through the roof, and 
in cold climates it should be increased to 4 in. in size before passing 
through the roof. 

The reason for this is that smaller sizes often close up at their 
upper ends with hoarfrost, thus stopping ventilation, which in the 
case of the refrigerator is a most important matter. The cellar end 
of the refrigerator line should be provided with a brass flap valve, 
in order that the upward passage of cellar air and odors may be 
prevented. 

The use of the flap valve and the cleanout is shown in Fig. B. 

BAR SINKS— SODA-FOUNTAIN SINKS 

The bar sink or the soda-fountain sink may be installed, if 
desired, with an indirect connection to the drainage system, or with 
direct communication. 

65 



66 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

When an indirect connection is made for either of these fixtures 
it may be trapped or not, as preferred, but should always discharge 
into a fixture or pan properly trapped and located as close to the bar 
sink or fountain sink as possible. 



EXHAUSTS, DRIPS, AND BLOW-OFFS OF STEAM 

BOILERS, ETC. 

The exhaust, draw-off, drip, and blow-off from a steam boiler 
should never connect directly into any sewer or into any part of the 
drainage system. These pipes should discharge into a tank or con- 
denser, the capacity of which should be the same as that of the boiler. 
The tank should be provided with a vent pipe not less than 2 in. in 
diameter, connecting with the outside air. The tank should connect, 
through a waste not less than 3 in. in diameter, into the house drain 
or sewer, preferably the latter. The waste should be trapped and 
vented and provided with a back-pressure valve. The reason that 
this class of drainage should not discharge directly into the drainage 
system or sewer is that the steam rising from it produces sewer 
pressure, against which al 1 possible precautions should be taken. 
Water over 120 degrees in temperature should not be discharged 
into the sewer, owing to the result which may follow in the forma- 
tion of steam. 

The drainage from hot-water heating systems and from low- 
pressure steam-heating systems may, however, be connected directly 
into the drainage system, if properly trapped, without entering a 
condensing tank. 

The drainage from hydraulic elevators, lifts, and other similar 
apparatus which is direct connected, should not be discharged directly 
into the drainage system, but should first enter a tank, in order that 
it may be discharged from that point into the sewer without pressure. 
Tanks used for this purpose should be trapped and vented and pro- 
vided with a back-pressure valve. 

Connections for a blow-off or condensing tank, also for waste 
connections for hydraulic elevators, will be found on Plate 65. Other 
examples of indirect waste connections will be found on Plates 64 
and 66, which show the plumbing for a garage, and drinking foun- 
tain connections. 




Plate X 



THE STALL SINK— HORSE TROUGH- 
FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS 



R/ohz 10. 



Connections f°r 

Horsz -Shall 







Sfo22 <£i%2z 



ok><=>u.f 3'aS', q 
all -4 <*>2de<$ 

t c> ?v~oz*d flse 
Cle ojz °uf 




^7gjz Kze?r y <$fo27 073 d <$27Z?z 



THE STALL SINK 

In modern stables much attention is given to the proper drain- 
age of horse stalls. Although not of so much moment when stables 
are located at a distance from dwellings, or in sparsely settled dis- 
tricts, the horse stalls of stables that are located in sections devoted 
to residential or business purposes should be provided for in the same 
manner as any other plumbing fixture. This applies to private stables, 
livery stables, engine-house stables, etc. 

The drainage of the horse stall is best accomplished by the use 
of a specially constructed cast-iron stall sink, the four sides of which 
pitch toward the center, from which point the waste is carried off. 
Below the sink a special fitting is provided which bolts to the sink 
and caulks into the cast-iron waste pipe. The waste and vent should 
be of 2-in. cast-iron pipe, cast iron withstanding the action of the 
acids in the waste much more effectively than wrought iron or steel. 

The waste line should enter a trap located as close to the stall 
as convenient, and provided with two 2-in. cleanouts. 

Two cleanouts may be used by taking the vent from a tee located 
next beyond the trap, instead of from the trap itself, as shown in 
Plate 10. The use of cleanouts wherever possible on work of this 
nature, is a necessity, as even the utmost precaution will not serve to 
entirely prevent the entrance of solid matter into the drain. A clean- 
out at the end of the horizontal cast-iron waste, as shown, will prove 
of much value. 

A perforated cover is provided with the stall sink, its purpose 
being to prevent as far as possible, the escape of solid substances into 
the waste pipe. 

The stall sink should be set well toward the rear of the stall, as 
shown in the plan view, in order to best serve its purpose. 

The sink should be covered by a skeleton trap door, through 
which the liquids may find their way into the sink. 

Even when provided with these drainage facilities, the horse stall 

soon becomes foul smelling, owing to the foul nature of the solids 

and liquids deposited; but if the sink is thoroughly flushed out with 

the hose each day, it may be kept in a comparatively clean condition. 

69 



7o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



THE HORSE TROUGH 

The plumbing of the stable is not complete without the properly- 
connected horse trough. The horse trough is generally made of cast 
iron, and may be provided with a standing overflow to guard against 
the overflowing of the fixture. 

Its waste should be 2 in. in size, and its vent i]/ 2 in. The drain- 
age pipes of stables are generally of cast iron, as the presence of 
strong acids in the waste soon causes wrought iron to deteriorate. 



FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS 

Several forms of water closet are now made, designed especially 
for operation in places exposed to extreme cold, such as unheated 
stables, yards, etc. Water closets for this purpose cannot be of the 
ordinary style, that is, with the trap combined in the fixture, as the 
contents of the trap would be in danger of freezing. Therefore long 
hoppers are generally used on frost-proof water closets, the trap 
being generally of cast iron and located below the closet at sufficient 
depth to avoid danger of freezing. Various methods are employed 
in providing a flush. In some cases the flush is direct connected, 
while in other cases galvanized cylindrical flush tanks are used. The 
flush tank is sometimes placed in a pit below the -water closet, and 
sometimes on the wall above it. 

In the latter case the tank fills only when the seat is occupied. 
When the seat is released, a heavy weight attached to it opens the 
flush to the closet and empties the tank, any water standing in the 
piping draining through a small pipe into the trap. 

When the tank is located below the floor it remains empty except 
when the seat is occupied. When the seat is pressed down, the tank 
fills with water to whatever extent the pressure will compress the air. 
When the seat is vacated the weight attached tips the seat up, closing 
the inlet to the tank, opening the flush to the closet, and the com- 
pressed air forces the flush through the fixture. When frost-proof 
water closets are located in cellars or basements of such buildings as 
factories, warehouses, and other buildings occupied, but not used as 
dwellings, they should be vented and local vented. 



Plate XI 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 



A 



C G nnzcf-/°ns 

f<=>r sS Traps 



Plahz // 




F'9 A 



t&=\ 




rig-B 



r*9 c. 




F/g- o 




F'9- £: - 




F'9F 



_^^_^_ 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 

The trap and its vent are so closely allied that it is best to con- 
sider them under the same heading. 

The trap is a vessel containing a body of water, the duty of 
which is to obstruct and prevent the entrance of sewer air and gases 
into the house. All plumbing ordinances recognize the necessity of 
a trap under each fixture, and upon the application of proper prin- 
ciples in its construction, installation, and venting, a large part of the 
successful operation of the modern system of plumbing depends. 

A trap to be entirely satisfactory and sanitary should possess a 
good seal, be self-scouring, non-siphonable, have the least possible 
opportunity for the collection of filth, have no partitions within itself, 
and depend upon no mechanical contrivance to make a seal. 

To secure all these features in the same trap is a difficult matter, 
but the claim is made for several traps now on the market that they 
meet these requirements, and the non-siphonable requirement having 
been solved, they require no venting. 

If an absolutely non-siphonable trap could be produced, there 
would be no need of the venting system, and the cost of the average 
plumbing system would thereby be reduced approximately one-third. 

It is true that several traps have been introduced which have 
withstood severe siphonage tests remarkably well. A very important 
question arises, however, as to what results these traps will show 
after they have been in service for a time, become fouled and in 
other ways reached the trap's normal condition. Some few plumb- 
ing ordinances now allow the use of these so-called non-siphonable 
traps without the use of the trap vent. The vast majority of ordi- 
nances, however, still adhere to the venting of the trap as a safe- 
guard against siphonage, and it would seem at the present time a 
wise stand to take. 

Before considering the special subject of S-traps, it will be well 
to consider some of the general features of the trap question. 

By the seal of the trap is meant the depth of water between the 
outlet of the trap and the dip, that is, the depth of water which pre- 
vents the entrance of gases from the sewer. 

73 



74 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

A safe depth of seal is 2 in. 

A much greater depth of seal might be secured for many traps, 
but the argument against it is that it presents a larger body of stag- 
nant waste than is necessary. A small seal is dangerous, as it may 
more easily be destroyed by evaporation. Evaporation is a great 
menace to the trap seals of fixtures which do not have their seals 
renewed in the everyday use of the fixture; and the conveyance onto 
the trap seal of air through the trap vent increases the evil. 

Internal partitions are dangerous, for sewer gas may pass into 
the house through defects that may exist in the partition above the 
water line. 

Formerly traps with mechanical seals were much in use, but are 
now generally prohibited. The mechanical device employed was 
usually a heavy ball or float, which gave opportunity for the collec- 
tion of grease and other filth about itself, resulting in the stoppage 
of the trap. 

The trap seal may be destroyed by back pressure, capillary 
attraction, momentum, evaporation, and siphonage. 

The trap seal may be forced by back pressure, that is, the pres- 
sure of gases generated in the sewer. 

This evil has been practically eliminated by carrying the vertical 
stacks through the roof, but was a serious matter in the old-style 
system, in which each stack ended at the highest fixture. 

The action of capillary attraction takes place in the trap when 
threads, pieces of cloth, etc., happen to dip into the seal and extend 
over into the outlet. By this means, a drop at a time, the seal may 
be, and often is, broken. There is no remedy that can be applied to 
this evil, for its existence is never known. A trap may lose its seal 
by momentum, that is, in flowing out of the trap, the rush of the 
waste is so strong that it may carry a part of the seal with it. 

This is the tendency in some traps working on the centrifugal 
principle. In these traps the waste inlet and outlet are on a tangent, 
resulting in a whirling motion which is so strong as to endanger the 
seal. These traps have great scouring qualities, which is an excellent 
feature. 

Occasionally traps on top floors may lose a part of their seal by its 
being blown out by gusts of wind passing over the top of the stack. 

Siphonage, however, is the worst evil which the trap has to con- 
tend with. For the purpose of the consideration of the action of 



CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 75 

siphonage it is considered that the trap in Fig. A, Plate 11, is with- 
out a vent. 

In that case, if a vacuum or partial vacuum were formed by any 
means in the lower part of the trap outlet, the atmospheric pressure 
exerted on the house side of the trap seal would force the contents 
out of the trap into the waste pipe. In other words, the contents 
would be sucked out of the trap. If conditions are such that a 
vacuum is produced as above, the only way in which siphonage of 
the trap can be prevented is by bringing a supply of air into the trap 
at or near its crown. 

The siphon consists primarily of a bent tube, one arm being 
shorter than the other. After the vacuum has been created, and both 
arms filled with water, the action continues because the falling of 
the greater weight of water in the long arm exerts a suction on that 
in the short arm. If the two arms were of the same length, the 
weight of each would balance that of the other, and the result would 
be that the water in each arm would fall by gravity, at once empty- 
ing both arms of the siphon. It will be seen, then, that the trap with 
its outlet, almost always represents the ideal form of siphon, for the 
middle leg of the trap is short and under atmospheric pressure, and 
the outlet is generally much longer, and at its lower end often subject 
to influences which tend to produce a vacuum. In order, then, that 
the entrance of air may break the siphonic action, the air must be 
admitted at or near the crown of the trap. That there are many 
influences in the plumbing system tending to produce a vacuum may 
be seen in the text under Plate 36, in which this subject is taken up 
more extensively. 

The vent pipe connected at the crown of the trap is the 
means employed to prevent trap siphonage, and to date it is the 
only practical means. Various experiments have been tried to pre- 
vent trap siphonage without employing an expensive vent system, 
but to no avail. Having now covered some of the features which 
apply to traps in general, the consideration of the S-trap will be 
taken up. 

This trap is more extensively used than any other form of trap. 

The S-trap and the drum trap may be considered as the funda- 
mental forms of traps, all other traps now in use being based upon 
one or the other in their operation. 

Much debate has arisen as to the relative advantages of these 



76 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

two forms of traps, but it is not the purpose of the author to enter into 
the controversy. Facts concerning the advantages and disadvantages 
of each will be given, the reader reaching his own conclusions as to 
which is the more perfect trap. 

The S-trap, owing to its form and to the fact that its passage 
throughout is of the same size, possesses excellent self-scouring 
qualities, a most desirable feature in traps. 

On the other hand, there is no other trap so susceptible to the 
action of siphonage as the S-trap, and it would be very unsafe to 
install this trap without providing it with a vent. Upon the proper 
application of the vent the successful operation of the S-trap largely 
depends. The greatest difficulty which the trap vent has to contend 
with is the accumulation of grease, hair, lint, etc., about the opening 
of the vent into the trap. 

So great is this evil that it is an acknowledged fact that in a very 
large majority of instances the vents of traps that have been in use 
for a number of years are undoubtedly inoperative, owing to com- 
plete stoppage of the entrance of the vent into the trap. 

Patent devices to prevent this have failed. Cleanouts on trap 
vents, as shown in Fig. D, are seldom used, owing to the fact that 
the existence of the trouble is usually unknown, and the need of the 
remedy therefore not appreciated. 

The nearest approach to a vent which will not Close up is the 
connection shown in Fig. F, in which the vent is taken from the top 
of the waste fitting. This method is known as continuous venting, 
and is of such acknowledged excellence that it is taken up at length 
under Plates 26, 27, and 28. 

S-traps are made in three styles, the full S, three-quarter S, and 
half S. 

In the latter two forms the vent may be taken off at a consider- 
able distance from the seal, as seen in Figs. C and E. Such a con- 
nection is preferable to that of either Fig. A, B, or D, for there is 
not so great a tendency to throw the waste up into the vent as in 
the three connections named. 

There is one other feature which makes the work of Fig. C 
preferable to that of Figs. A, B, and D. 

Air is supplied to the trap seal at such a distance from it, that 
the rate of evaporation will be materially less than in the case of the 
other three connections. 






CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS— VENTING 



77 



The vents in Figs. B and D being taken off further from the 
trap seal than in Fig. A, their rate of evaporation will be less. 

The vent connection of Fig. A, formerly in universal use, is now 
considered very poor practice. Although evaporation is not so dan- 
gerous a factor as siphonage in connection with traps, it is much 
more to be feared than would appear at first thought. 

This is particularly true of traps under fixtures which are sel- 
dom used, or traps of fixtures in houses that are vacant, as is often 
the case during the summer season. 

The S-trap, when used to serve the bath tub, is often found very 
inaccessible when it is desired to clear it of stoppage, for the trap 
screw, so convenient in most positions, is in this case very difficult 
to get at. 

• Flooring must usually be taken up to get at the cleanout. 

In Fig. E is shown a very desirable method of providing a clean- 
out for the bath trap. The cleanout being brought flush with the 
floor, any stoppage may be removed without taking, up the flooring. 

The sizes of traps are, viz. : 



Traps for water closets, 
" slop sinks, 
" kitchen sinks, : 
" laundry tubs, 
" bath tubs, 
" urinals, 
" lavatories, 
other fixtures, 



4 

3 
or 2 

ii 



in. diameter. 



2 



Every trap should be provided with a cleanout on its inlet side 
or below the water level in the trap, and the overflow from each fix- 
ture should be connected on the inlet side of the trap. Through 
carelessness and ignorance the overflow is sometimes found connected 
to the sewer side of the trap, thereby forming a by-pass through 
which gases and odors from the drainage and sewer system may 
enter the house. The trap should always be set level with respect 
to its water seal. Otherwise the available depth of seal will be 
lessened, and the seal possibly entirely lost. 

Traps located under floors should have cleanouts accessible from 
above the trap, except in cases where the trap is accessible from the 



78 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

floor below, owing to the form of floor construction, as, for instance, 
in factory work. The waste from a fixture should never pass through 
more than one trap before entering the house drain. The effect of 
passing waste through two traps is to cause air-lock between the two 
traps, which impedes the natural- flow of the waste and results finally 
in a stoppage of the waste. 



Plate XII 



CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS- 
PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 



for Drum Traps 



Plate /2. 



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CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS 

The drum trap for general fixture use is 4 in. in diameter, and 
into it are wiped the inlet and outlet waste pipes. The trap, then, 
represents an enlargement in the waste from a pipe of 1%, 1^2, or 
2-in. diameter to 4 in., and under this condition it cannot be expected 
that the drum trap will possess the scouring qualities to be found in 
the S-trap. The drum trap, however, certainly possesses one very- 
strong point. While the S-trap is the trap most easily siphoned, the 
drum trap is one of the most difficult to siphon. In fact, under any 
ordinary working conditions the drum trap is practically non-siphon- 
able. Special tests of great severity have shown that at least a part 
of its seal may be siphoned, but these tests subject the trap to con- 
ditions far more severe than they encounter when installed on the 
plumbing system. The strong point of the drum trap is that, unlike 
the S-trap, it holds a large body of water, and when subjected to 
siphonic influence, such action takes place through a passage of the 
same diameter as the waste pipe, allowing the remaining body of 
water to fall back and form the seal. 

While acknowledging that the drum trap is far less subject to 
siphonage than the S-trap, it should be vented, in order that every 
possible precaution may be taken to eliminate this danger and to give 
the entire system the benefits to be derived from thorough ventilation. 

It would seem a poor policy to maintain a radical stand against 
the use or in favor of either the S- or the drum trap. A better course 
is to select the form of trap to be used after considering the nature 
of the fixture which it is to serve, and the special conditions under 
which the plumbing system acts. 

For instance, in country districts, where venting is not always 
used, it would appear to be good practice to make free use of the 
drum trap. Wherever the continuous vent can be applied to the trap, 
however, the use of the S-trap will give excellent results. 

The drum trap is of special value in serving the bath tub, as it 

may be easily cleaned, and very often a better pitch can be secured 

for the outlet pipe than in the use of the S-trap. It is also well 

81 



82 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

adapted to the laundry tubs, as it will easily receive the inlets from 
the several compartments, and may be placed in a more advan- 
tageous position than the S-trap, often avoiding a long line of hori- 
zontal waste extending from the farthest section to the S-trap. The 
drum trap is often used to serve two or more fixtures, but this is a 
practice which should not be followed, as each fixture should have its 
own separate trap. 

Connections to the drum trap may be made in a great variety 
of ways, several of the more common connections being shown in 
Plate 12. 

The connections of Fig. A have in the past been common, but 
the trap so installed is open to an evil which is not often considered. 
The trap screw is made tight by means of a rubber or leather 
gasket, and unless this joint is perfectly tight, direct communication 
with the sewer will exist. It is almost impossible to open this clean- 
out after the gasket has been in use for some time without destroy- 
ing it, and a defective joint is very liable to be left. There are a 
number of ways in which this danger may be avoided. Fig. G shows 
a method of using the drum trap so that any defect in the cleanout 
gasket will at once be made apparent by leakage from the trap. The 
cleanout may be placed at the bottom or on the side, as shown by 
dotted lines. In either case it is not only submerged, but allows the 
trap to be cleaned to better advantage. Many ordinances now require 
the cleanouts of fixture traps to be submerged. 

Fig. B shows a trap which is well guarded, having its outlet 
submerged, in which case, when the trap screw is removed, there is 
no direct communication. 

This method of connection, however, is open to a serious ob- 
jection. By taking the outlet from the bottom of the trap, where the 
heavy parts of the sewage collect, and thereby making the outlet 
pipe form the trap, there is much greater liability of stoppage. 

In Fig. C the outlet ends inside the trap, dipping down into the 
seal, and thereby preventing direct communication with the sewer 
when the trap screw is removed. Although gaining this point, the 
part of the outlet inside the trap forms an obstruction, and there is 
opportunity for the collection of grease, etc., around it. The interior 
of the trap should always be free from any obstruction. 

Fig. D shows a trap in which the vent is connected through the 
cleanout cover. Many ordinances prohibit a vent connection of this 



CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS 83 

kind on the ground that no vent connection should be made by means 
of a union and gasket. 

There is still another objection to this form of vent connection. 

All traps sooner or later have to be opened and cleaned out, and 
in this case to remove the cleanout the vent must be bent around out 
of the way, which is not only an annoyance but harmful to the vent. 

In Figs. E and F the outlet pipe is shown dipping down to the 
bottom of the trap. This is done to prevent direct communication 
when the cleanout cover is removed, but is a bad practice, for two 
reasons. In the first place, it takes up space in the trap, and forms 
an obstruction around which collections of foul matter may form. 
In the second place, either of these two forms of trap is very much 
more liable to siphonage than would be the traps in Figs. A and B, 
for the inlet and outlet openings are close enough together to prac- 
tically form an S-trap, which is very susceptible to siphonage. 

Fig. H shows a trap which is compact in the manner in which 
its connections are made, but which has the same fault that is found 
in Figs. C, E, and F. 

This trap will siphon more readily than when connected as in 
Figs. A and B. 

Fig. K shows a trap provided with a continuous vent, that is, a 
connection so made that the vent may be taken off the waste fitting. 
As stated in connection with S-traps. this method is an excellent one. 

It is taken up thoroughly under Plates 26, 27, and 28. 

In the case of Fig. K, the fault is the same as in Fig. A, that is, 
there will be direct communication with the sewer whenever the 
cover is removed. The same trap reversed, however, so that its 
cleanout is submerged, overcomes this objection. 

Therefore, in summing up, it would seem that the trap shown in 
Fig. G, connected like that shown in Fig. K, would present the drum 
trap under the most favorable conditions possible. 

PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 

The matter of venting appears in the plumbing system in sev- 
eral ways. In the first place there is the soil or waste vent through 
the roof, the main lines of vent into which the individual trap vents 
connect, the trap vents themselves, the fresh-air inlet, and the local 
vents of water closets, urinals, and slop sinks. Local vents and the 



84 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

fresh-air inlet have no connection with the system of trap vents, and 
will not be touched upon under this plate. The soil and waste vents, 
main vent lines, and trap vents are closely allied, however. 

One of the chief steps toward the improvement of the plumbing 
system was taken when soil and waste stacks were carried through 
the roof instead of being allowed to end at the connection of the top 
fixture. Even without the use of trap vents the roof vent was of 
great benefit, as it was often the means of preventing the creation of 
siphonic conditions, which meant the siphonage of the unvented traps. 

In addition, it proved a successful remedy for back pressure 
from the sewer, as the latter could not force the seals of traps, for 
the reason that the roof vents relieved any such pressure. 

It is generally through the soil or waste vent that air is brought 
into the main vent lines of the plumbing system, which in turn 
deliver the air to the traps through their separate vents. 

The trap vent should be as direct in its course from the trap to 
the main vent line as possible, in order that the passage of air may 
be secured with as great an amount of freedom as possible. 

Each fixture vent or trap vent should incline upward through- 
out its course, in order that any condensation forming in it may be 
conducted back into the trap. The trap vent should in all cases enter 
the main line of vent above the fixture which it serves. When the 
vent is thus properly connected, and a stoppage occurs in the trap 
or the fixture waste, the waste from the fixture will back up into 
the fixture, thus giving warning of the trouble that exists. If the 
vent pipe is connected below the fixture, however, the waste in 
the event of such a stoppage will not back up into the fixture, but 
will flow off through the fixture vent into the main vent line, and 
thence into the drainage system, thus defeating the purpose of the 
vent system, and making of the trap vent and main vent a waste 
pipe for the fixture. 

Each fixture trap should be separately vented, but vents from 
several fixtures may be connected into a single branch vent, provided 
this branch runs above the highest fixture of the group. 



Plate XIII 
SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 



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SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 

Properly, soil pipe is any pipe through which the waste from 
a water closet passes, and waste pipe is any pipe receiving waste 
from any fixture or group of fixtures other than the water closet. 
The term soil pipe is often used to designate cast-iron pipe of any 
size and for any purpose in connection with the plumbing system. 

The latter is the sense in which it will be referred to in the con- 
sideration of the present subject. 

Soil pipe is of two weights, " Standard," and extra heavy, the 
latter being far preferable in general, owing to the fact that it may 
be cast more evenly, with fewer defects, sand holes and cracks, and 
that it may be cut and caulked with less liability of cracking pipe 
and fittings. 



WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF CAST-IRON PIPE 



Diameter 


Extra Heavy 


Standard 


Diameter 


Extra Heavy 


Standard 


2 in ... . 


5/ 2 ^s. 


s y 2 lbs. 


6 in. . . . 


20 lbs. 


10 lbs. 


3 in 


gy 2 lbs. 


4 l / 2 lbs. 


7 in. . . . 


27 lbs. 




4 in ... . 


13 lbs. 


6y 2 lbs. 


8 in 


33K lbs. 




5 in.... 


17 lbs. 


8 lbs. 


10 in. . . . 


45 lbs. 





It is sometimes required by plumbing ordinances to use soil pipe 
that is plain and uncoated, it being usually coated inside and outside 
with asphaltum or tar. The coating often covers defects, which in 
the uncoated pipe would appear and be remedied. If plain pipe is 
used it should be coated after being tested. The joints on cast-iron 
soil pipe should be made of molten soft lead poured onto a firm body 
of caulked oakum, the lead being caulked even with the top of the hub. 

The approximate weights of lead necessary for each joint 
are, viz, ; 

87 



88 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



2-in. caulked joint I lb. 8 oz. 



3-in. 


< a 


4-in. 


t a 


5-in. 


( a 


6-in. 


C (( 


7-in. 


( ' u 


8-in. 


i u 




t (t 



io-in 



2 ' 


' 4 


3 




3 ' 

4 ' 


' 12 

' 8 


5 ' 

6 ' 


' 4 


7 ' 


' 8 



It is generally unsatisfactory to give such a table as the above, 
of the amount of lead necessary for caulked joints of different size, 
as one workman may use much more oakum than another, and a 
correspondingly less amount of lead. Therefore it will no doubt be 
found that the table published will not agree always with the prac- 
tice of different workmen. There is a rule, sometimes used in esti- 
mating the amount of caulking lead, calling for one pound of lead 
for each inch in size of the respective joints; thus, 3 lbs. for a 3-in. 
joint, 4 lbs. for a 4-in. joint, etc. In estimating the total amount of 
lead to be used on the cast-iron piping, it is necessary simply to esti- 
mate the number of hubs on fittings of different sizes, and the num- 
ber of lengths of pipe of different sizes, adding the amounts of each 
size together and multiplying by the weight of lead used per joint. 

Thus a Y or tee would call for two joints, the third joint on the 
spigot end, being estimated on the straight pipe. 

An allowance for waste, shrinkage, and extra fittings, should 
always be added to the estimated amount of lead. 

It is sometimes necessary to make a rust joint on soil pipe. This 
should be done by caulking into the hub a ring of oakum, and filling 
the remaining space with a putty made by mixing together sulphur, 
iron filings, and sal ammoniac. 

Connections between cast-iron pipe and lead pipe should be 
made by connecting the lead pipe to a brass ferrule by means of a 
wiped solder joint, the ferrule being caulked into the cast-iron hub. 

Overcast and cup joints are often weak and imperfect, and 
should not be used. 

Connections between cast-iron pipe and wrought-iron or brass 
pipes should be made by means of a caulked or screw joint. All 
horizontal soil pipes, whether for drainage or venting, should, when 
possible, have a uniform fall of y 2 in. to the foot, but never less than 



SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 89 

Y± in. to the foot. A less amount of pitch brings the pipe nearly 
level, and stoppage and sluggish flow of waste is liable to result. 
A grade on vent pipes is necessary in order that condensation may 
be carried off. 

All changes in direction of soil pipe used on the drainage system 
should be made by means of Y-branches and sixth, eighth, or six- 
teenth bends. 

This connection is shown in Fig. A, Plate 13, and applies whether 
the change in direction is made vertically or horizontally. A clean- 
out should always be used in the end of the Y in order to control 
that section of the piping. The change in direction made in Fig. B 
is entirely wrong, the quarter bend not being permissible on any part 
of the drainage system. 

.It is allowed, however, on the fresh-air inlet, vent lines, rain 
leaders, and floor and yard drains. 

The tee should not be used on any part of the drainage system; 
the T-Y being allowed on vertical lines when it is impossible to use 
the Y-branch, but not being allowed on the horizontal piping. 

The object in restricting the use of these fittings on the drainage 
system is to secure for the waste flowing through the drainage sys- 
tem as natural and unimpeded a passage as possible. 

Double hubs should not be used on the drainage piping, as in 
their use a rough end of pipe is always exposed where the pipe was 
cut off, and on this end, lint, paper, etc., in the sewage is liable to be 
caught. 

The use of double-hub pipe will often avoid the use of double hubs. 

The double T-Y is another fitting which should not be used on 
horizontal work, as the waste entering one side of the fitting will 
cross and enter the branch on the other side, instead of entering the 
main line only. 

Vertical stacks should be straight whenever possible, but when 
offsets, are necessary they should be made with 45-degree fittings. 

Any building in which plumbing fixtures of any description 
are installed should have at least one stack extending through 
the roof. 

Whenever a vertical line receives waste from a fixture on any 
floor, it should extend through the roof, if 10 ft. or more from the 
nearest stack. 

The following sizes of soil and waste pipes should be followed: 



90 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Each soil pipe should be at least 4 in. 

Main soil pipes for water closets on two, three, or four floors. 4 " 

Main soil pipe for water closets on five or more floors 5 " 

Main soil pipe for tenement houses of more than three stories . . 5 " 

Branch soil pipes 4 " 

Main waste pipe for kitchen sink 2 " 

Main waste pipe for sinks, lavatories, or laundry tubs on five 

or more floors 3 " 

Main waste pipe for six or more fixtures, not less than 3 

The following sizes for main vent lines should be followed: 

Main vent for 4-in. soil-pipe line 2 in. 

Long branch vent lines 2 " 

Main vent for stack serving sink, laundry tubs, and lavatories . 2 

Main vent for line of water closets on three or more floors. ... 3 

Main vents for tenement houses of more than three floors .... 3 " 

Additional main-vent sizes will be found under Plate 36. 

The main vent line may be run independently through the roof, 
or it may be reconnected to the main soil or waste pipe above the 
highest fixture vent. The latter connection is shown in Fig. C, Plate 
13, and it has certain advantages over the independent roof connec- 
tion. In the first place, it saves cutting an extra hole through the 
roof, and the smaller the number of pipes passing through the roof 
the less will be the danger of leakage, and the less unsightly will the 
roof appear. In addition, the circulation of air through the vent sys- 
tem will be better, owing to the influence of the warmer air of the 
main stack in keeping the air in motion. 

This connection may be made into the vent fitting shown in 
Fig. C, into an inverted Y-branch, and in the use of wrought-iron 
main vent by means of a tapped fitting on the main stack. When the 
pipe is to be increased through the roof, the vent line may enter the 
main stack through an increaser, such as shown in Fig. F, provided 
with a side hub or tapping. The lower end of the main vent should 
be reconnected to the main stack, as shown in Fig. D. 

This connection allows all condensation and collection of rust 
and scale to be carried off into the drainage system, and in addition, 
it gives rigidity to the work, the danger from leakage due to acci- 
dental blows, settling, shrinkage, etc., being largely eliminated. 



SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 91 

Fig. E shows a very common but undesirable method of con- 
necting the lower end of the main vent to the fixture vent of the 
lowest fixture. 

It will be plainly seen that all scale falling through the main 
vent will collect in the bend at the foot of the line, and such collec- 
tions of rust and scale often present a serious difficulty. 

In Fig. F is shown a common method of making the roof connec- 
tion. Some plumbing ordinances require a 2-in. stack to be increased 
to 3 in. in passing through the roof, and a 3-in. stack increased to 
4 in., that is, each pipe less than 4 in. in size shall be increased one 
inch in size. 

Most ordinances, however, allow no pipe of less size than 4 in. 
to pass through the roof. The latter is the preferable method, for 
the reason that 2 and 3 in. and smaller sizes of pipe will sometimes 
entirely close up with hoar frost formed about the opening above the 
roof, this accumulation being produced from the steam rising through 
the stack. In increasing the size of pipe, long increasers, such as 
shown in Fig. F, should be used, and the increaser located not less 
than one foot below the roof. 

Caps or cowls should not be used to cover roof pipes. In the 
case of roof pipes of tenement houses whose roofs are used by the 
inmates, the openings should be protected by the use of a wire basket, 
but under other conditions it is preferable to keep the opening entirely 
free, as even the wire basket gives opportunity for the collection 
of frost. 

The roof pipe should extend two feet above the roof. When- 
ever the roof is used by the inmates, all pipes passing through it 
should be carried up at least 6 ft. above the roof. Roof pipes should 
terminate not less than 3 ft. above any window, door, or air shaft 
that may be within a distance of 12 ft., and such pipes should not 
terminate within 6 ft. of any chimney or flue. 

When carried above the roof, pipes should be securely stayed 
to the roof. Many styles of roof flanges are in use, the most com- 
mon probably being that of Fig. F, in which the hub is riveted to a 
flange of sheet copper, which may be slipped under the slate or 
shingles above the pipe, and over them below it. Adjustable roof 
flanges will fit a roof of any pitch. A very desirable form is one in 
the use of which the plumber is not required to go onto the roof to 
pour the lead joint. 



92 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

A change has in recent years come about in the use of materials 
on the drainage and vent systems of the plumbing system. Years 
ago all piping of the plumbing system was of lead. This was fol- 
lowed by the use of cast iron on both main drainage lines and vent 
lines, with branch wastes and vents of lead. 

Although much cast iron is still used on main vent lines, a large 
part of the main vents of modern plumbing systems are now con- 
structed of wrought-iron pipe, and the branch vents as well, until at 
the present time a large majority of trap vents are of wrought iron, 
excepting in certain sections of the country that still adhere to lead 
work. 

The present tendency, especially on large work in the large 
cities, is toward the use of wrought iron and brass for fixture wastes, 
and a very excellent feature to be noted in their use is that cleanouts 
at bends may be used, whereas this was not done in the use of lead 
wastes. The use of brass pipe for drainage purposes is excellent 
practice, but the cost of brass pipe is so great that, excepting on the 
higher grades of work, its use is limited. 



Plate XIV 

SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 



Supporting <=>f 

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SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the running and support- 
ing of soil pipes. They are generally made tight by caulked lead 
joints, which are easily made defective when moved in any way, 
owing to the great weight and leverage of the pipe. Few plumbing 
systems that have been in use for a number of years would show 
perfect joints under test, and in many cases this condition is due to 
imperfect supporting of the pipe. 

' When a vertical line drops to the cellar bottom, it should rest 
upon a thick flagging or upon a brick or stone foundation, as in Fig. E. 

Care should be taken in building such a pier during the winter 
season that there is no frost beneath it, which would allow the pier 
and stack to settle when it thawed. 

Brick or stone piers should also support a horizontal line run- 
ning above the cellar bottom, particularly at points where vertical 
stacks enter it. The use of piers to support horizontal lines running 
below the cellar timbers is preferable to long hangers, as in the use 
of the latter the pipe would be inclined to swing if subjected to side 
pressure. 

There are now on the market pipe-supporting fittings, as shown 
in Fig. G, which can be made to support piping running at any given 
grade. When there is no firm cement cellar bottom, these support- 
ing fittings should rest on wide flaggings. 

Equal care should be used on overhead piping, some ordinances 
calling for overhead running of all pipes. 

In supporting overhead pipes, hangers of the pattern shown in 
Fig. A should be used, and the pipe should be supported once in each 
five feet. Some ordinances call for a support in each ten feet, but 
the above provision is better. 

Fig. D shows a practice, generally prohibited, of using hooks 
for the supporting of pipe. 

The hanger is firmly supported at each end, the pipe resting 
between the two supporting points; in the use of pipe hooks, how- 
ever, the weight of the pipe, owing to the form of the support, will 

95 



96 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

cause it to sag, and though the sag may often be very slight, it will 
generally be sufficient to cause defective joints. 

All vertical lines of soil pipe should be supported at each floor 
by iron bands placed just below the hub or under the branch of a 
fitting. 

These bands are made of flat wrought iron, and should have the 
strength of ^2 -in. round iron, and should be securely fastened to the 
timber with screws. 

The support should be made on a vertical timber if possible, as 
the danger of settling or sagging of a horizontal timber is greater. 

A practice sometimes followed is to cut the pipe in such a man- 
ner that it supports itself on a hub at each floor, as shown in Fig. C. 

For hangers for 2- and 3-in. soil pipe, ^-in. wrought-iron rod 
should be used; and J/2 -in. rod for 4- and 5-in. pipe. 

That there is great need of every precaution in running and 
supporting soil pipe may be seen when it is considered that a 4-in. 
stack in almost any ordinary residence or dwelling will weigh at 
least 550 lbs., without taking into account any branches or fittings, 
and pipe of larger size will weigh very much more. 

Furthermore, when the entire system is filled with water during 
the water test, this weight is raised to a much higher amount. 

Stacks passing through the roof and carried several feet above 
it in order that their upper ends may be above all roof openings or 
above adjoining windows, should be given special support, as the 
pressure of the wind against them is at times very strong. 

When roofs of tenement houses are occupied and used by ten- 
ants, as often happens, there is the additional danger of blows against 
the pipe. Such pipes should be supported by three or four stout 
wrought-iron rods firmly secured to the soil pipe, run off at an angle 
and secured to the roof. A wrought-iron collar placed around the 
pipe and above a hub, provides a good means of attaching the rods 
to the soil pipe. Another method is to tap the pipe and secure the 
rods by bolts. 

Vent pipes from cesspools when required to run vertically in the 
open for a number of feet should also receive special support. 

A very good method of providing such support is to set in the 
ground, close to the cesspool, a heavy pole which will not sway under 
the pressure of the wind, and run the pipe vertically against it, sup- 
porting the pipe under each hub by wrought-iron bands. 



SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 97 

The present excellent practice of connecting main lines of vent 
pipe to their main soil and waste stacks above the highest fixtures, 
and below the lowest fixtures, is a good practice, as it ties the work 
together, giving rigidity to it, and, in the event of settling, allows 
both lines to settle evenly without resulting in an unequal strain on 
the two lines that would result to a greater extent if not thus con- 
nected. The settling of a line of cast-iron pipe often results in pull- 
ing apart the caulked lead joints, especially if the line is not properly 
supported. For instance, a vertical line that may happen to be well 
supported in its upper sections, but poorly supported at lower points, 
is very liable to pull apart from the section that is securely fastened. 
This sometimes results in pulling the caulked lead joint entirely out 
of the hub. 

' The great necessity will thus be apparent, of securing vertical 
lines firmly throughout their course, and of providing support at the 
foot of each stack which cannot possibly settle. One of the chief 
advantages to be gained in the use of wrought-iron drainage and vent 
piping, in the construction of the Durham system of plumbing, is that 
the screw joints of such pipes will not pull apart in the settling of 
stacks, as the caulked joints of cast-iron piping will do when the pipe 
is not properly supported. As far as a vertical pull on a vertical line 
of screwed pipe is concerned, it will have no more effect on the joint 
than on the pipe itself in pulling it apart. 

However, if proper precautions are taken, vertical lines of cast- 
iron pipe may be installed even in high buildings without danger of 
pulling apart. 



Plate XV 

THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH 

AIR INLET 



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THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR 

INLET 

In the construction of any plumbing system, one of the first 
things to be decided is whether the system shall be protected by a 
main trap or not. 

The question is a debatable one, and has been since the intro- 
duction of the trap itself. Plate 15 shows three methods of installing 
the main trap and its accompanying fresh-air inlet. From these 
illustrations it will be seen that the main trap is placed on the house 
drain at a point as close to the place where the drain leaves the 
building as possible. 

The object of this trap is to prevent the entrance into the plumb- 
ing system of gases and odors from the sewer. 

At first thought, the entrance of gases into the plumbing system 
would not appear to be harmful, especially as it has abundant oppor- 
tunity to rise and escape through the roof pipes. However, although 
the plumbing system of to-day is subjected to rigid test after being 
constructed under rigid ordinances, there are numerous ways in 
which gases rising through the plumbing system may enter the house. 
The settling of floors and foundations may result in rendering soil- 
pipe joints defective; the soil piping is seldom properly supported, 
and often settles or sags through its own weight, causing the same 
kind of trouble. These and other conditions that might be named 
are of such universal occurrence that it is safe to say that only a 
comparatively small percentage of plumbing systems that have been 
in service for a term of years would be able to show perfect joints 
under test. Even though the plumbing system, with all its various 
connections, may be perfectly tight, still the danger of entrance of 
sewer gas is not always eliminated. 

Traps of fixtures not in everyday use often lose their seals in a 
comparatively short time, as do floor drains, cellar drains, etc. 

Whenever repairs are to be made on the soil piping or on branch 
wastes, sewer gas has a free passage until the repairs are completed. 

Whenever the water closet is removed for repairs or to be 
renewed, sewer gas has a free entrance until it is replaced. Many 



102 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

other instances might be given in which the gases and odors from 
the sewer may find their way into the house. 

The main trap is provided as a means of preventing this result. 

The opponents of the main trap claim that it obstructs the flow 
of sewage through the house drain, that the trap will soon stop up, 
that in cold weather it will often freeze. These objections are not 
serious, and in many cases are more fancied than real. To be sure, 
the outflow is somewhat impeded by the trap, but the gain in pro- 
viding protection to the house would much more than offset such 
difficulty. The strongest and practically the only real argument 
against the use of the main trap is that it prevents the ventilation of 
the public sewer through the roof pipe of the building. The weigh- 
ing of the questions which arise in this connection is a very difficult 
matter. 

In the first place it does not seem to be right to make a venti- 
lating flue of each stack in each dwelling house, through which the 
sewer may throw its gases, to escape into the houses through defects 
and openings. 

At the same time, the main drain and stacks present at present 
the most available means of ventilating the sewers, and are therefore 
often made use of. The closed sewer should not be tolerated, and 
the present method of venting the sewer through perforated manhole 
covers is open to serious objection, as it allows direct communication 
between the streets and the sewer. Special vent stacks should be 
erected at high points in the sewage system, through which the sewers 
might vent themselves, but such means are not provided, and there- 
fore not to be considered. 

It is claimed that where a free passage exists between the sewer 
and the outer air through the roof extension of the plumbing sys- 
tem, a circulation of air will be kept up, by means of which fresh 
air will be drawn into the sewer through the manhole covers, and 
the foul air drawn out through the roof pipes. If it were not for the 
matter of exposing the interior of the house to the admission of 
sewer gas this would unquestionably be an excellent plan. 

Some go even further, and claim that enough fresh air would 
be drawn in through the manholes to render the gases harmless. 

This does not seem reasonable when it is considered what a 
small area the manhole perforations really represent, and that a large 
percentage of these holes are closed up with dirt, ice and snow, etc. 



HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 103 

If the house could be guaranteed against the entrance of gases, 
there are certainly many places in which the delivery of them into 
the air above the houses of the community would be followed by no 
harmful results. 

In our towns and cities, however, with odors and gases escap- 
ing through every roof pipe, a heavy atmosphere must force them 
down to such points that they may often enter windows, light 
shafts, etc. 

In our large cities, also, where low buildings adjoin high ones, 
it would seem very poor policy to banish the main trap, for without 
it the pipes through the roof of the lower building are constantly 
throwing their impurities out, to be drawn into the rooms on the 
higher floors of the high building. 

That they would be drawn in in this way there is no question, 
as the circulation of the warmer air of the building would often 
create a suction sufficient to draw in the outer air. 

In the case of tenement houses, also, whose roofs in the summer 
season are occupied by the inmates, the escape of a constant stream 
of sewer gas would seem to be a thing to be dreaded. 

Another, and a very strong point against the employment of 
plumbing systems having no main trap, is the fact that under such 
conditions air contaminated with disease germs coming from the 
human excreta of any infected house on a line of sewers, may find 
its way through defects in the plumbing systems of other houses on 
that line, and thus gain entrance into the living apartments of the 
inmates. Plumbing systems should always be so installed that there 
may be no opportunity for such occurrences as this, whether in the 
manner just mentioned or through local vent systems, which have 
been known to carry infection from one to another apartment in 
the same building. 

For this reason, as well as for other reasons, it is always poor 
practice to connect the drainage system of one house into that of a 
neighboring house. Such practices were more or less common years 
ago, but since the matter of sanitary conditions has begun to receive 
its proper attention, the connection of two or more houses to the same 
house drain or sewer has been strictly prohibited. 

It would seem that there is an opportunity for the display of 
good judgment in the employment of the main trap. In sections of 
a city where the houses are detached, as in the residential sections, 



io 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it would be wiser to do without the main trap than in the more densely 
populated sections. 

The use of the main trap makes necessary the use of the fresh- 
air inlet, which, as shown in Plate 15, must be connected on the house 
side of the trap. The purpose of this pipe is to bring into the plumb- 
ing system a supply of fresh air, and to create a circulation of this 
air through the system and out through the roof pipe. It also serves 
to prevent air lock between heavy bodies of waste flowing down the 
house drain and the seal of the main trap. 

If the fresh-air inlet were connected on the sewer side of the 
main trap, it would not only fail of its purpose of supplying air to 
the system, but would form a direct vent for the sewer at a particu- 
larly bad point. 

The fresh-air inlet should under no conditions receive drainage 
of any sort. Formerly the fresh-air inlet was connected to the trap 
itself, as shown in Fig. A, which method allowed but one cleanout 
to be used on the trap, whereas two should always be used. Experi- 
ence proved, however, that this connection had another disadvantage, 
from the fact that it brought in a current of cold air directly upon 
the trap seal, which resulted in the chilling and sometimes in the 
freezing of the water in the trap. Even though not frozen, the chill- 
ing of the waste caused the grease to separate from the sewage and 
cling to the inner surface of the trap, making ultimate stoppage more 
possible. 

The freezing and the stoppage of the trap are two of the argu- 
ments against its use, but by the employment of proper means these 
results may be largely overcome. The fresh-air inlet, when properly 
constructed, is taken out of a fitting placed next to the trap, on the 
house side of it. This fitting may be either a tee or a Y, as shown 
in Figs. B and C. The more bends there are in the pipe, and the 
more indirect its course, the less will be the possibility of chilling 
and freezing. 

The fresh-air inlet should never end at a point within 15 ft. of 
any door, window, or cold-air box supplying heating systems. The 
reason for this is that when heavy volumes of sewage pass through 
the house drain, a discharge of foul air passes through the inlet. 
This same trouble also occurs sometimes owing to a heavy atmos- 
phere. When the fresh-air inlet ends at a distance greater than 15 ft. 
from any opening into the house, it may terminate at the outer face of 



M 



HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 105 



the foundation, as seen in Fig. B. In this case its end must be pro- 
vided with a perforated cap, or with a bend looking down, in order 
to prevent different articles, such as stones, etc., from being thrown 
into it. It must usually be carried out into the lawn or yard to cover 
the requirement, in which case it is often constructed, as shown in 
Fig. A, with a ventilating cap covering its end, or ending in a return 
bend, this bend ending at least one foot above the ground. In busi- 
ness districts, where such devices as the return bend and ventilating 
cap could not be used, the fresh-air inlet should open into a box,, 18 
in. square, located below the level of the sidewalk, and at the curb. 
The bottom of this box should be at least 18 in. below the under side 
of the end of the inlet pipe. 

The box may be constructed of brick or flagging, or of cast iron, 
and covered with a flagstone provided with a removable iron grat- 
ing leaded into the flag. The grating should have small perfora- 
tions in order that refuse may not pass through, and the total area of 
the perforations should at least equal the area of the fresh-air inlet. 

Another method of running the fresh-air inlet is to carry it 
through the roof, as seen in Fig. C. 

In general, this adds considerable expense without giving much 
added value. An objection to it, especially in the case of the ordinary 
house where there is but one 4-in. stack, is that the weight of air in 
the stack and in the fresh-air inlet about balances, with the result 
that there is but little circulation. This method, however, is but 
seldom used. 

As to size, the fresh-air inlet for traps up to 4 in. in size should 
be of the same size as the trap. 

For traps larger than 4 in. it may be less than the size of the trap. 

For 5- and 6-in. traps the fresh-air inlet should be 4 in. in 
diameter. 

For 7- and 8-in. traps, the fresh-air inlet should be 6 in. in diam- 
eter; and for traps larger than 8 in. it should be 8 in. in diameter. 

Care should be taken that the main trap is set level, in order 
that none of its seal may be lost. When located below the cellar 
bottom, it should be made accessible either by setting it in a brick 
manhole provided with a removable cover, or by making depressions 
in the cement bottom so that the cleanouts may be easily reached. 

The connection shown in Fig. B, whereby it is made possible to 
use an end cleanout, is an excellent one. 



106 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

With two cleanouts on the main trap, and this end cleanout, the 
house drain at this point is well guarded against any possible stop- 
page. The connection referred to is now demanded by the ordinances 
of a number of different cities. All connections into the drainage 
system must be made on the house side of the main trap. 

An exception to this rule is made in the case of rain leaders, 
which are sometimes run outside the foundation walls, in which case 
they may be connected into the house sewer on the sewer side of the 
main trap. Such rain leaders must be properly trapped. The main 
trap is sometimes located underground, outside the foundation walls, 
in which case it must be made frost proof and accessible. This is 
done by setting it below the freezing level, in a brick or stone man- 
hole, covered with a flagstone. When so located, the fresh-air inlet 
should never be taken off the trap, as the passage of cold air would 
be so direct as to cause trouble. 



Special Note 



Since the foregoing chapter was written, official investigations 
under government sanction have been made in England by a commis- 
sion of technical experts, covering exhaustively and conclusively the 
entire subject of the main or intercepting trap and fresh air inlet. 
This Commission has published a very complete report of its work, 
a synopsis of which is given in a special chapter on page 375. 

So far as we know, this is really the only definite, scientific data 
that has been gathered on the subject of the intercepting or main trap. 

Even though the information given may tend to upset opinions 
previously held, if the more recent information is the more correct, that 
certainly is the knowledge we should desire to be guided by. 



Plate XVI 

FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS— SUBSOIL 
DRAINAGE— THE CELLAR DRAINER 



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FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS 

Floor drains are much used and of much value on large work, 
especially in public toilet rooms for hotels, depots, stables, etc. 

The size of floor and yard drains should never be less than 3 in. 
in diameter, and very often, where there is much service required 
of them, and where there is any danger of solids of any description 
entering them, 4 in. is preferable. 

The drainage of yards and areas in congested business districts, 
and in densely populated districts, is a matter of importance to the 
public health. Under such conditions, all areas, yards, paved courts, 
and courtyards should be properly drained. 

This applies especially to tenement-house districts. The com- 
mon form of floor and yard drains is of the style to be seen in Fig. A 
of Plate 40, provided with a removable perforated cover. There are 
several special forms of drains, such as those shown in Figs. A and 
B of Plate 16, some of them being provided with a vent connection. 
Ordinarily, however, drains of this description do not require vent- 
ing, but may safely be installed without it, as in Fig. C. 

Floor and yard drains should always be provided with deep- 
sealed traps. The deep seal is a special feature of the trap in Fig. A. 

An excellent form of trap which will fill this requirement is one 
made of quarter bends. This trap is generally of the half-S form 
and may be easily constructed of three quarter bends. The use of 
a very deep seal on this class of work is not to be feared, as it would 
be in the case of polluted drainage, for all drainage passing through 
such drains is composed practically of clear water. In the case of 
other drainage a very deep seal would allow too large a body of 
sewage to stand in the trap to putrefy and make the system more 
impure than there is need of. The drain of Fig. B, with its flushing 
device, is an excellent one for many purposes, particularly for use 
in hospitals and on other work where general conditions must be as 
perfect as possible. 

The flushing rim and jet with which the drain is provided allow 

the entire surface to be thoroughly cleansed, and the cleansing is 

accomplished without wetting the floor. By means of properly 

109 



no MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

arranged supply connections, the trap may be flushed with hot or cold 
water, or with both. 

The seal of this trap is of much greater depth than that of the 
ordinary floor drain. The connection of the water supply with drains 
of this description is an excellent idea, as a very small drip may be 
provided which will insure a permanent seal in the trap. Yard 
drains, for instance, in times of drought, and especially when not 
provided with deep-seal traps, may become a source of danger from 
loss of the trap seal. This source of danger, by the way, is an argu- 
ment in favor of the use of a main trap. 

Many plumbing ordinances demand that floor and cellar drains 
shall be water supplied, and this is certainly a needed precaution. 

Floor and yard drains need not be separately trapped when one 
trap can be made to serve two or more drains, or where such drains 
are so connected as to be controlled by the trap of a rain leader. In 
fact, the use of a single trap, especially a rain-leader trap, to control 
one or more floor or yard drains is an excellent means of protection, 
as the permanence of the seal of such trap is more positive than the 
seals of separate traps would be. 

In many cities a separate system of sewers is used for the dis- 
posal of surface and subsoil waters, no house drainage being allowed 
to enter it. In this case all floor and yard drains, roof leaders, sub- 
soil drains, etc., should enter the surface water system: When these 
drains enter the house drainage system, however, no drainage which 
is not of clear water should be allowed to enter them. 

Vitrified earthen pipe may be used for stable drains and for yard 
drains which are not connected with any house drain. Such drains 
must always be trapped and connected to the house sewer outside of 
the connection of the house drain to the house sewer. 

When drains are of vitrified earthen pipe they should not be less 
than 5 in. in diameter. 

The practice is sometimes followed of using any convenient 
cleanout opening as a cellar-floor drain, but it is a poor practice, and 
should not be followed. 

The construction of the cellar drain is shown in Fig. C. This 
drain is naturally located at the end of the cellar at which the house 
drain passes out, as the house drain pitches in this direction. The 
cement bottom should be graded from the several sides of the cellar 
toward the entrance to the cellar drain. 






SUBSOIL DRAINAGE in 

A catch basin or well is generally formed in the cement, and at 
the bottom of it the cellar drain trap is located. Even though the 
system is provided with a main trap, a trap should be used on the 
cellar drain. 

Without it, odors from the house drain would pass through the 
cellar drain and out into the cellar. 

The practice of double trapping on this part of the work will 
not be followed by the troubles that generally follow double trapping, 
for the passage of water from the cellar drain is seldom of large 
volume. 

It is a good plan to form in the cement bottom a small gutter, 
following around the entire cellar wall and close to it, this gutter 
being led into the catch basin of the cellar drain. By means of the 
gutter, and the grading of the cellar bottom, any water entering 
the cellar through the upper part of the foundation, or discharging 
onto the floor through leaks in the water piping, may find its way 
into the cellar drain. 

SUBSOIL DRAINAGE 

It is of the utmost importance to the health of the inmates that 
the cellar be kept as free from dampness as possible. 

In the case of damp soil, a system of subsoil drainage should 
always be employed. 

Subsoil drains are constructed of earthenware drain tile, laid 
with open, uncemented joints. The moisture of the damp soil enters 
the drain through these open joints. The subsoil drain should be 
laid completely around the cellar wall, and whenever necessary may 
have branches running in to the center of the cellar. The drain 
should be laid on a level with the bottom of the foundation wall, and 
about six inches inside of it. The subsoil drain should be laid on 
an even grade, pitching toward the catch basin to which it is to be 
connected, it being necessary to connect it always into such a catch 
basin properly trapped and entered into the house drain. 

The catch basin is generally constructed of concrete, and made 
in the form of an open well in the concrete cellar bottom, and covered 
by a stone or cast-iron cover. 

Whenever the sewer to which such a catch basin is connected is 
known to back up, the trap of the catch basin should be provided 
with a back-water valve. 



ii2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

THE CELLAR DRAINER 

When the house drain is run overhead, it is clear that the cellar 
and subsoil drainage cannot be disposed of by gravity in the ordinary 
manner, as just described. The device used in raising the subsoil 
water is the automatic cellar drainer, and it is also used for remov- 
ing water from excavations, wheel pits, or other depressions where 
water accumulates. 

The drainer is placed in a pit or manhole below the cellar bot- 
tom, into which the drainage to be raised is discharged. As soon as 
the water collects to the depth of about a foot in the pit, the drainer 
opens and discharges the water. 

As the water rises in the pit, a float attached to the drainer is 
gradually raised, and when a certain level is reached, the lever to 
which it is attached opens the valve wide, allowing water or steam 
pressure to pass through the drainer, and thereby drawing or suck- 
ing the water from the pit into the discharge pipe. 

The drainer is generally operated by water pressure, this con- 
nection being made to any supply pipe. The water passes under full 
pressure through the drainer point or jet, thus creating the necessary 
suction to draw the water out. When the water has been removed 
from the pit, the valve instantly closes, and the drainer again becomes 
inactive. 

The water in passing through the jet of the drainer creates a 
vacuum, this vacuum being the means of producing the necessary 
suction. The discharge pipe from the drainer should empty the water 
of the pit, and the pressure water used in operating the apparatus, 
into a sink or pan located above the house drain, into which the 
drainage may then flow by gravity. The sink or pan should be 
trapped and vented in the same manner as any other fixture. 

In general, the cellar drainer requires a water pressure of four 
or five pounds for each foot through which the water is to be raised 
vertically. The cellar drainer is not adapted to raising water over 
12 ft. usually, and many of them lose much of their efficiency after 
passing 8 ft. 

The drainer may be located in an underground box or barrel. 
Cellar drainers are capable of raising from 250 to 1,200 gallons of 
water per hour. 

The sizes of supply pipe generally used are y 2 in. for small 
sizes, 24 i n - for medium sizes, and 1 in. and larger for large sizes. 



Plate XVII 



WATER CLOSETS— FLOOR CONNECTIONS 



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WATER CLOSETS 

Probably no other plumbing fixture or device has passed through 
such great changes and been brought from a most unsanitary condi- 
tion to a condition of such high excellence as the water closet. 

A volume might be written on the changes that have been 
wrought in its construction, but as this work is designed to deal only 
with present-day plumbing, only those fixtures now actually in use 
will be considered. 

A water closet to be sanitary should possess the following fea- 
tures: It should be protected by means of a trap within itself, this 
trap having a good seal; there should be as small an area of surface 
exposed to contact with soil as possible, and all such surfaces should 
be thoroughly scoured; the flushing of the fixture should be accom- 
plished as noiselessly as possible, and without unnecessary waste of 
water ; the trap seal should be exposed to view ; no mechanical devices 
should be employed in the operation of the fixture, with the excep- 
tion of the flush tank; and for flushing the fixture it should never be 
directly connected to the water-supply system. 

Modern water closets are superior to the old-style water closets 
of the pan, valve, and plunger styles in every respect. They avoid 
dead ends that are neither provided with water nor with ventilation; 
surfaces between the bowl and its trap, that in the old fixtures were 
protected in no way, are now submerged; the modern water closet 
is provided also with better ventilation, a stronger flush, is more 
noiseless, and is far more cleanly. 

The leading forms of water closets now in use are the washout, 
washdown, siphon, and siphon-jet, the two first named being used 
very extensively in many cities on the cheaper class of work. 

Since the principle of siphonic action has been applied to the 
water closet, however, the siphon and siphon-jet fixtures have taken 
the precedence over all other forms, and it appears to be only a matter 
of time before they will supplant the less satisfactory forms entirely. 

The four water closets mentioned above are illustrated in Plate 
17, Fig. A showing the washout style, Fig. B the washdown, Fig. C 
the siphon, and Fig. D the siphon-jet. 



n6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The washout water closet is somewhat different from other 
forms, from the fact that soil, as it enters the fixture, falls into a 
shallow pool of water above the trap, from which it must be con- 
veyed by the flush into and out of the trap. The meeting of the flush 
with the resistance above the trap and with the resistance which the 
soil presents, impedes its force to a great extent, with the result that 
the water merely runs over the dip into the trap without much 
force, losing thereby much of the scouring effect that it would 
otherwise have. 

So much of the energy of the flush is used up in removing the 
soil from the upper shallow bowl that it has not sufficient energy to 
perform the work needed in driving out the contents of the trap. 
This same loss of force is to be observed in the flushing of the old 
pressure closet, in which the flush is sent around the bowl. There 
is one advantage that is not often considered that the washout water 
closet has in having its upper shallow pool. The location of the pool 
allows excreta to remain in sight, which, in the case of the sick room, 
is often desirable to the physician and nurse. For this reason the 
washout water closet is sometimes made use of in private infirmaries. 

The washdown water closet is an improvement over the wash- 
out, as the action of the flush is more severe and its scouring qualities 
therefore better. 

Surfaces, which in the washout closet are left exposed, in the 
washdown closet are submerged, making the latter much the more 
cleanly of the two. 

At length, however, the principle of siphonage was applied to 
the action of the washdown water closet, this step marking a very 
great advance in water-closet construction. 

In the washdown-siphon water closet, the outlet is through a 
horizontal leg, which is contracted so that its area is considerably 
less than that of the passage above it. As the flush enters the fix- 
ture, and the contents of the trap pass out through the vertical 
passage, the water in passing through this passage attains a much 
higher velocity than it has when it reaches the contracted horizontal 
leg. The outflow being thus retarded, the water completely fills the 
horizontal leg, and as it passes out creates a vacuum behind it. 

With nothing but the water in the trap to resist it, atmospheric 
pressure exerted on the upper surface of the trap seal, forces the con- 
tents of the trap out through the outlet and into the drainage system. 



■. 



WATER CLOSETS 117 

Atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 lbs. per square inch, and 
it is this amount of pressure that acts to force the contents of the 
water-closet trap. When the siphon finally breaks, enough water fills 
into the bowl to fill the trap, when it is ready for another operation. 

The application of the principle of the siphon to the washdown 
water closet allows a larger amount of the surface of the bowl to be 
submerged than possible to obtain in the same form of closet in which 
sole dependence is made on a rush of water to operate it. In the 
siphon closet there is not only a pushing force exerted by the water 
entering the fixture, but there is also the force of suction pulling the 
contents of the trap out of the fixture. 

The next step in advance in water-closet construction was the 
application of the water jet to the siphon closet, as seen in Fig. D. 

- In the washdown-siphon water closet the formation of siphonic 
action depends entirely upon the filling of the outlet, and until enough 
water flows out of the trap to accomplish this the action does not 
take place. 

In the case of the siphon-jet water closet, additional aid is pro- 
vided for the complete filling of the water closet outlet. 

At the point where the flush enters the fixture, it divides, a part 
entering the bowl through the flushing rim, the rest entering a small 
passage which leads into the trap in such a way that its opening shall 
point directly up the middle arm of the trap, from which it emerges 
in the form of a jet. The force with which this jet emerges will 
help to raise the water and cause it to pass over into the vertical 
arm. The aid obtained from this jet, in addition to the natural flow 
of the contents of the trap into the contracted horizontal leg, quickly 
forms a solid plug of water, a vacuum forms, and siphonage takes 
place, as seen above. 

This entire action is very strong, and in the case of both fix- 
tures shown in Figs. C and D, all surfaces are thoroughly flushed. 
These excellent features make of these two fixtures the most sani- 
tary and most satisfactory water closets on the market. In addition, 
there is less annoyance from the noise created by flushing the siphon 
water closet than others. 

The washout water closet, with its shallow seal and its surfaces 
exposed to the contact of the soil, may be procured at far less cost 
than the siphon jet, and it may be said that this fact is the only one 
that makes its use favored by anyone who is at all acquainted with 



n8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the subject. The washdown-siphon water closet may be obtained at 
a slight advance over the cost of the washout, the difference being 
so slight that it would seem that no one desiring proper sanitary- 
conditions would hesitate a second in selecting the siphon closet. 

The siphon form of water closet is the only one that should be 
used in connection with the low tank, the reason for this being that, 
although the flush inlet from the tank is enlarged to make up for the 
loss in head which is secured in the high tank, enough water cannot 
be thrown into the closet from the low tank to make the flushing 
of the fixture sufficiently strong. 

By the aid of the siphon, however, the low tank is able to pro- 
duce excellent results. 

There are numerous other water closets, working on slightly 
different construction than those shown in Plate 17, which will hardly 
be worth considering, as those already discussed are most generally 
in use. The hopper and trap form of water closet, in its various 
forms, appears, in comparison to the modern high-grade fixture, to 
be of a very primitive character, and is now generally prohibited. 

The use of the offset water closet is a practice which should 
never be allowed. This form of closet is made for use in connec- 
tion with the lead or iron trap used with the pan, pressure, long 
hopper, and other closets. 

Very often, when closets of this class were taken out, instead 
of taking out the trap beneath the floor, it would be allowed to 
remain, and the offset water closet, which has no trap, set in place of 
the old fixture. The reason that one of the modern closets could not 
be used instead of the offset closet was that there would then be two 
traps on the same fixture. The objections to the use of the offset 
water closet are that the flush loses its force before it reaches the 
trap, consequently not flushing the trap to any extent, and that there 
is a large amount of polluted surface, extending from the crockery 
into the trap below the floor, which gives off foul and unsanitary 
odors into the room in which the fixture is located. The offset closet 
is made in such a manner as to deceive those not acquainted with the 
subject into the belief that it is a fixture built on modern principles. 

The only course to pursue in renewing such work as the above, 
is to tear out the trap under the floor, replace it with a lead bend, 
and use a modern type of water closet. 

Vitreous chinaware is now used in the construction of all first- 




WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS 119 

class water closets. This ware is formed of compact material, which 
is subjected to a high heat before being glazed. In the employment 
of this material there is no danger from the cracking or " crazing " 
of the glazed surfaces. In former times, before modern processes 
were employed, the crazing of the water closet was of frequent occur- 
rence, resulting in the absorption of moisture by the exposed sur- 
faces under the glazing, the fixture in time becoming foul and very 
unsanitary. 

All water closets, as well as lip urinals and slop sinks, should 
have flushing rims, so as to flush the entire surface of the crockery. 

Water closets should never be located in dark or unventilated 
places, and the practice of installing them in cellars, although fol- 
lowed to considerable extent, is not a wise proceeding. Sunlight and 
air are two powerful purifying agents, and when fixtures such as 
water closets and urinals are placed where ventilation is not pro- 
vided and sunlight cannot enter, the conditions must necessarily 
become unsanitary, and the place where the fixtures are located filled 
with impure air. For this same reason the open plumbing of the 
present day is much more sanitary and much more wholesome than 
the old-style boxed-in plumbing. 



WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS 

Floor connections, although often receiving scant attention, are 
an important feature in obtaining sanitary conditions. Several forms 
of this connection are shown in Plate 17. Fig. H shows the simplest 
and probably most common connection, and at the same time most 
unsatisfactory and unsanitary. 

This method consists in flanging the lead bend over onto the 
floor, filling the groove around the outlet of the closet bowl with a 
ring of putty, and screwing the bowl to the floor. The putty com- 
presses and forms the joint. 

In the event of pressure against the fixture, shrinking or rotting 
of the floor, this joint will break and allow a leakage of gas into the 
house. In addition, the oil in the putty often spreads and discolors 
the flooring around the fixture. 

A much better form of connection is to be found in Fig. G. Here 
the lead bend is brought up through a brass flange, and soldered to 



120 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the latter, as shown. A rubber gasket is placed between the flange 
and the base of the water closet, and the whole fastened together 
and made tight by means of brass bolts. This makes a connection 
which should never leak, even though there be shrinkage or settling 
of the floor on which the fixture rests. 

Fig. E shows a patented form of floor connection which also 
makes a good joint. The base of the closet is recessed to receive a 
brass-screw connection, it being made firmly to the crockery by 
cement and lead. 

A female brass-screw connection is soldered inside the top part 
of the lead bend, and the closet screwed down into it. The joint 
formed between the brass and the crockery makes the former prac- 
tically an integral part of the closet. 

Fig. F shows a floor connection for use in connection with 
wrought-iron soil pipe, such as is used for the Durham system. 

A brass floor plate or flange is screwed into the end of the ell 
or other waste fitting in use, and a tight joint made by using a rubber 
gasket between the flange and the base of the water closet, the latter 
being screwed to the floor. 



Plate 6y on page 374 shows three additional types of water closets. 

The closet shown in Fig. A is designed especially for flushing 
valves under direct pressure. The flush divides between the jet and 
flushing rim in such a manner as to cause quick operation. It is very 
economical in the use of water, but is not adapted to use with the 
common open flush tank or with pressure tanks. 

The water closet in Fig. B is made on similar lines to that of 
Fig. A, and is for use with direct pressure flushing valves. This bowl 
is supported against the wall. This type of closet has many ad- 
vantages, not the least of which is that they keep the floor clear of 
obstruction. For successful operation, a pressure not less than 25 lbs. 
is needed. 

The special form of syphonic washdown bowl shown in Fig. C 
is for use with a pressure tank only. The operation is assisted by a 
jet. This type of closet is excellent for schools, factories, etc." 






Plate XVIII 
LOCAL VENTING 



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LOCAL VENTING 

A local or surface vent is a vent provided for the purpose of 
carrying off foul odors incident to the use of the water closet. 

This pipe is also applied to the urinal and slop sink to good 
advantage. The local vent has no relation whatever to the drainage 
system or to the back-venting system, and may be considered as a 
measure looking to the comfort of the people making use of the fix- 
tures to which it is applied, rather than as a strictly sanitary measure. 

Local ventilation differs in no way from any other form of 
ventilation. 

The system generally in use consists in connecting a pipe from 
the local vent spud on the water-closet bowl to a heated flue. A 
good feature of this form of ventilation is that it is accomplished 
without any expense of operation. As long as a. sufficient difference 
in temperature between the air of the toilet room and the air of the 
flue exists, excellent results may be maintained by means of this 
system. 

The heated air of the flue being lighter because of being ex- 
panded by the heat, rises through the flue, the tendency being to 
produce a vacuum behind the column of constantly rising hot air. A 
suction is thus caused on the air in the pipe connecting to the rim of 
the water closet, and this air is drawn into the flue and forced up 
and out of it by the current of heated air. The suction is often so 
strong that small pieces of paper thrown into the water-closet bowl 
will be forcibly drawn into the local vent pipe and into the flue. The 
only point against this form of ventilation is the fact that it cannot 
always be connected to a flue which is heated throughout the year. 
It is a form of vent which is used principally in dwellings, tenement 
houses, and other buildings in which the flue to which the local vents 
are connected is not likely to be heated during the warm months. 

On larger work, such as public toilet rooms, other means are 
used for obtaining ventilation. 

However, in most cases where the local vent is applied, no other 
ventilation would probably be made use of because of the expense of 

123 



i2 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

running the mechanical devices used in producing it, and it would 
therefore seem of much advantage to the inmates to be able to enjoy 
its comforts during those months when the flues are heated. There 
is this to be said concerning the months of the year when it might 
not produce results : the windows at such season of the year are 
generally wide open, and the need of artificial ventilation not so great 
as during the period when the local vent does its work thoroughly. 

It is certainly true that the toilet room provided with the local 
vent is far more wholesome than the one which is without it. This 
vent, sometimes called a seat vent, opens into the water-closet bowl 
just back of and below the seat, and while the water closet is in use 
carries off all the odors incident to its use. In addition, when the 
cover of the closet is down, there is sufficient space for air to enter 
the bowl and pass into the vent between the seat and the crockery, 
which are kept apart by means of rubber bumpers on the seat. There- 
fore the local vent is at all times providing ventilation not only for 
the water closet itself, but for the entire toilet room. 

In order to provide proper ventilation three factors are neces- 
sary. There must be an inward passage of fresh air and outward 
passage of foul air, and a force acting to produce the movement of 
air which results in the changing of the air. The first factor named 
is one most likely to be omitted in providing a system of ventilation. 
Foul air will not pass out of the toilet room unless other air is brought 
in to take its place. The demand for a supply of fresh air is very 
largely filled by natural means. Open windows, the entrance of 
air through window casings, etc., supply in general a considerable 
amount of fresh air. In addition, it is a fact that air passes through 
brick walls to a very considerable extent, and through the plaster- 
ing as well. 

Many plumbing ordinances do not make the use of local ventila- 
tion compulsory. Even though it is not compulsory to use the local 
vent in all toilet rooms, there are certain conditions under which it 
certainly should be used as a sanitary precaution. 

In this connection the following requirement is a good one: 

All water closets, slop sinks, and urinals should be provided with 
local vents when located in rooms which receive their light from light 
shafts, skylights, or courtyards, or when located in compartments not 
directly connected with the outside atmosphere and sunlight. The 
application of the local vent may be made more universal by provid- 



LOCAL VENTING 125 

ing artificial means of creating a draft when it is impossible to enter 
a heated flue or a flue which is always heated. Under such condi- 
tions an excellent method is to carry the local vents up to an airtight 
box or compartment heated by means of gas jets, the pipe from which 
should be carried 3 ft. or more above the roof, ending in an auto- 
matic ventilator. Another method of a similar nature is to provide 
a specially constructed device of the kind shown in Fig. C, Plate 18. 
This may be inserted in the main vertical line of local vent, and will 
be found to perform excellent service at only a slight cost for the 
consumption of gas. 

Figs. A and B of Plate 18 show two different systems of local 
venting. Fig. A gives the separate system of vents, in which the 
vent from each water closet is carried separately to the point where 
entrance is made into the heated flue. 

The system shown in Fig. B consists of a main vertical line, 
into which the local vent from each water closet is entered, and is 
probably more commonly in use than the system first mentioned. 
The system of separate vents of Fig. A has very decided advantages 
over the other system. 

In the event of the presence in one apartment of a contagious 
disease, it is possible in the use of the system of Fig. B to communi- 
cate the disease to the inmates of other apartments in the building. 

This would be especially true of apartments the water closets of 
which backed up to opposite sides of the same partition. In the same 
way, in the use of the system of Fig. B, conversation and other 
sounds may be carried from the toilet room of one apartment into 
the toilet rooms of other apartments. The separate system of local 
vents suffers from none of these objectionable features, and although 
certainly somewhat more expensive to install, the additional outlay 
should not be considered if the matter of freedom from the evils 
mentioned is to be secured. The local vent from a single water 
closet should never be less than 2 in. in diameter. When two, three, 
or four vents enter a main line of local vent, the main vent should 
not be less than 3 in. in diameter. 

These are the sizes ordinarily used in the local-vent system, and 
are the sizes generally specified in plumbing ordinances, but are not 
strictly in accord with the principles that should be followed in secur- 
ing a perfect system of ventilation. 

Providing that a 2-in. pipe is of sufficient size to thoroughly 



i 2 6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

ventilate a single water closet, at the point where the second vent 
enters, the pipe should be enlarged so that its area shall be equal to 
the combined area of the two vents which it supplies. When the 
third vent enters it, the size should be such that its area will be equal 
to the combined areas of the three branch vents. This gradation in 
the size of the main local-vent pipe is necessary if each water closet 
is to receive its full amount of ventilation, that is, if each water closet 
is to be ventilated as it would be if its individual 2-in. local vent were 
able to perform its full duties. The area of a 2-in. pipe is 3.14 sq. 
in. ; of two 2-in. pipes, 6.28 sq. in. ; and of three 2-in. pipes, 9.42 sq. in. 
The area of a 3-in. pipe is 7 in., and it will therefore be seen that 
while a 3-in. pipe is sufficiently large to provide for two 2-in. vents, 
it is not large enough to provide for a larger number. 

The main, in order to properly provide for three fixtures, should 
be 3J/2 in. in diameter, and 4 in. for four fixtures. While 2-in. local 
vents to the several water closets will accomplish good work, single 
vents of 2 x / 2 in. diameter will be found to do better work. When 
this size is used, it will be found that two water closets will require 
a main vent 3^/2 in. in diameter, and three water closets, \]/ 2 in. in 
diameter. This shows an increase in the main local vent of one 
inch in diameter for each additional water closet, but after the third 
fixture has been added the increase in the size of the main need not 
be so great. Water closets on which the local vent is to be connected 
should be provided with a spud, which may be on the right or left- 
hand side, as may be desired. As the local vent has no connection 
with the drainage system or with the trap-vent system, it is not an 
essential feature that its joints should be gas tight. For local vents 
either copper or galvanized sheet-iron pipe is used. Where the vent 
is exposed to view, and neat-looking work is desired, the copper pipe 
may be nickel plated. All changes in direction, reduction or increase 
in size of local vents should be made with long ells, reducers and Ys. 

Y-branches and 45-degree bends are preferable to tees, as they 
make the course of the air currents more easily taken, and thus 
improve the draft. 

The local vent should pitch upward throughout its course, in 
order to facilitate the work of the vent as much as possible. Heated 
air naturally rises, and therefore it is always poor practice in run- 
ning pipes to convey such air in any other way than pitching upward 
toward the point of delivery. For the sake of convenience local vents 



LOCAL VENTING 127 

are often bent downward to avoid some obstruction, and then carried 
upward again, a very poor practice when it can by any means be 
avoided. 

Main local vents connected to a heated flue should not have an 
area exceeding one tenth the area of the flue itself. Local-vent con- 
nections with heated flues should always be made at points above the 
highest opening into the flue. If made below, the foul odors carried 
in the local-vent pipe may escape into the rooms with which flue 
openings communicate. 

Care should be taken in making the proper chimney connection 
for local vents. An excellent method is to use copper pipe for con- 
nection into the chimney, the local vent lines being connected to the 
pipe. A cast-iron ferrule may also be used for the purpose, but gal- 
vanized sheet iron should not be used, as the soot of the chimney is 
liable to destroy it after a time. 

The chimney connection may be run straight into the chimney, 
or it may be turned upward, an objection to the latter method being 
the danger of the collection in the pipe of falling soot. 

When so constructed, it is good practice to provide a cleanout 
at the outer end of the chimney connection, for use in clearing any 
obstruction. 

The pointing downward of the pipe by means of a bend inside 
the chimney obviates trouble from the soot, but results in checking 
the draft. 

When the chimney connection is run straight into the chimney 
it should project inside only slightly, as unnecessary obstruction of 
the flue space is undesirable. 

The work which has thus far been described and illustrated 
relates chiefly to the application of the local vent to residences, dwell- 
ing houses, apartment houses of ordinary size, etc. 

For larger work more extensive methods are necessary, such as 
the use of large piping, and the mechanical supply of fresh air and 
exhausting of foul air. 

In the case of public toilet rooms, underground comfort sta- 
tions, etc., means of ventilation on a large scale are extremely nec- 
essary, as the use of such rooms would otherwise result in a public 
nuisance. 

The difference to be noted in the atmosphere of public toilet 
rooms of hotels, for instance, which are provided with poor light and 



i 2 8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

no ventilation, is great in comparison with the atmosphere of many 
of our modern, well-appointed toilet rooms of hotels, etc. 

It has become a matter of good business to make special effort 
and outlay in securing proper ventilation for toilet rooms of public 
buildings, for the public has become educated to the point where they 
will patronize only those establishments that look after these points. 

On the larger work it often becomes necessary to secure greater 
motive power for ventilating purposes than the heated flue is able to 
furnish. 

For this purpose fans are largely employed, connected as shown 
in Fig. D. Usually an exhaust fan is used to withdraw the foul air, 
and another fan to supply fresh air to the fresh-air ducts. 

This class of work will be taken up again in connection with the 
subject of public toilet rooms, as also the local venting of urinals. 



Plate XIX 



BATH ROOMS 



Plate 19 



Connections for 

Bath Room 



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BATH ROOMS 

With the advent of modern fixtures and modern methods, the 
bath room of to-day may become, with a comparatively small outlay, 
a room of great beauty, and when it may be installed regardless of 
cost, it may become a place of almost marvelous beauty. 

No other part of the plumbing system so fully illustrates the 
many advantages which the open-plumbing system has over the 
closed or sheathed-in system. 

No one attempts to make a comparison of the old-time sheathed- 
in bath-room work with that of the present day, as far as beauty and 
artistic effect are concerned. Furthermore, the open system is far 
more sanitary. 

When plumbing fixtures were sheathed in, neither light nor air 
could circulate about them, with the result that there was constantly 
a musty, if not foul, odor present. The sheathing absorbed more or 
less moisture and filth from the careless use of the fixtures, and there 
was abundant opportunity for the collection of dirt in crevices and 
corners in the use of sheathing. 

The bath room of to-day can indeed be made as clean and whole- 
some as the parlor. 

The connections for the bath room shown in Fig. A of Plate 
19 show one point of excellence which is seldom sought for by the 
plumber or considered by the architect or owner. Each fixture 
waste has a separate entrance into the soil-pipe line. When fixtures 
are installed under such conditions, the stoppage of one fixture can 
in no way affect any other fixture. It will be of interest to compare 
the work of Fig. A with that of Fig. B. In the latter the lavatory 
and bath are connected into the same trap below the floor. Without 
doubt this method often saves expense, but the trap — any trap, in 
fact — is almost certain to be stopped up at some time, and when 
this occurs, not only one fixture but two fixtures are affected, both 
remaining out of use until the trouble is repaired, and thus causing 
a double annoyance. In addition, the trap which serves two fixtures 
must become stopped more often than the trap which serves but one. 

131 



132 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Furthermore, quite a length of waste must be run from the lavatory 
before it enters the trap, and the filth of the interior of this trap is 
bound to give off impure odors into the bath room. To prevent this 
result as far as possible, each trap should be placed as close to its 
fixture as circumstances will allow. 

The work of Fig. A is free from these troubles, which arise from 
not entering each waste separately into the stack. 

There is another serious objection to be found with the work 
shown in Fig. B. 

The waste after leaving the drum trap, instead of being con- 
nected into a Y-branch on the soil-pipe line, is connected into the 
horizontal arm of the lead bend. Now, if a stoppage occurs in the 
lead bend, every fixture in the bath room is immediately put out of 
use, and the waste under these conditions often sets back into the 
bath tub and water closet. A less number of fittings, and doubtless 
less labor, is necessary in constructing such work, but if troubles of 
the nature mentioned do not sometimes occur, it is simply a matter 
of good fortune. 

Usually a slight additional outlay would have made such evils 
unnecessary. The wiping of the waste into the lead bend is also 
accompanied by the liability that sharp points of solder have run 
through inside the bend, forming projections against which paper 
and other material may catch and form the starting point of a stop- 
page. The only favorable thing about this lead-bend connection is 
that in the present instance it is made on the horizontal arm rather 
than into the heel of the bend, where the connection would be much- 
more likely to be followed by trouble. 

It is a fact that many cities operating under strict plumbing 
ordinances, and maintaining a high standard of plumbing construc- 
tion, allow both the lead-bend waste connection and the use of a 
single trap to serve the lavatory and bath. It is also strange that 
certain cities will allow the kitchen sink and laundry tubs to be 
served by a single trap, and that occasionally one of these connec- 
tions is allowed and the other prohibited. 

It must be acknowledged that the plumber is often at fault in 
allowing such connections to be made. However, it must also be 
stated that it is often almost impossible to gain a separate entrance 
for each of the three fixtures, owing to lack of working space, loca- 
tion of fixtures, shape and size of the room, etc. 




BATH ROOMS 133 

Many times a separate entrance can be provided for the lava- 
tory, if located near the stack, by running the waste back to the wall 
and using a half-S trap, as shown in Fig. A, the waste fitting coming 
so much above the other fittings as not to interfere in any way with 
the rest of the connections. 

The architect could, in a great many cases, arrange his work to 
a great deal better advantage than he usually does. 

For instance, the fixtures, with a little study, may be located in 
such a way that the advantages just mentioned may be obtained. 
The shape and location of the bath room, the location of pipes, etc., 
may usually be worked out so that the plumbing may be installed to 
the best possible advantage. It is not the good fortune of the plumber 
often to work from plans which show that the architect has given 
much consideration to, or has much knowledge of, the requirements 
of the plumbing system. 

The plumber often finds, for instance, that in order to run the 
soil pipe as shown in the plans, an offset on the vertical line must be 
used, which is always detrimental. He also finds, especially in bath- 
room work, that he must cut into floor timbers and into uprights in 
order to conceal his work, and indeed, often cut through timbers 
and make use of a header to support it ; whereas, if the architect knew 
the requirements and put this knowledge into his work, many of these 
difficulties might easily be avoided. 

The vertical soil piping may sometimes be run in a dark closet 
adjacent to the bath room, but more often must be run inside a nar- 
row partition, or exposed to view. If it is desired to conceal the soil 
pipe, it should be boxed in, but the front boarding should be put up 
with screws, in order that it may be easily and quickly taken down 
when repairs or changes are necessary on the piping. Unless this 
provision is made, lathing and plastering must be cut out. 



Plate XX 

BATH ROOMS 



Plate 20 



Connections 

for Bath Room 



■Vent run under 
Floor above , over 
to Main Vent. 



M 




E 



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5 H 




Note: There are no 
other Fixtures enter- 
ing thisStack- 




BATH ROOMS 



It will be observed that all the waste and vent connections of 
the bath-room work shown in Fig. C of Plate 20 are of either 
wrought or cast iron, with the exception of traps, their short con- 
nections, and the lead bend. This is the style of construction that is 
rapidly displacing lead work. This change in plumbing construction 
is without doubt as it should be. To be sure, the skill of the expert 
lead worker is no longer required to any great extent on a large part 
of the present-day construction work, but the workman of to-day 
must have a far greater knowledge of physics, hydraulics, and many 
other subjects which concerned the old lead worker but little. 

Whenever a fixture is located at a greater distance than 6 ft. 
from its stack, it should not have a lead waste. The chief reason 
for this is that long lines of lead pipe are very liable to sag, thereby 
causing traps to be formed on the waste pipe. 

The lavatory in Fig. C being more than 6 ft. from its stack, a 
line of cast-iron pipe is run to it, and as the fixture is located on the 
opposite side of the room from the stack, the vent is carried up to 
the floor above, and then run over to the main line of vent, a course 
much preferable to any attempt to run the vent around the sides of 
the room. 

The latter course would often be difficult, as it would generally 
be necessary to expose the vent to view, and to run it above the 
height of the fixture, detracting much from the appearance of the 
bath room. If obliged to run the vent about the sides of the room, 
it would be necessary to use nickel-plated brass pipe in order to 
obtain a good-looking piece of work. The vent of the lavatory is 
known as a continuous vent, and above the waste fitting should be 
run of wrought-iron pipe. 

Separate entrance for the bath waste is obtained into the 
cast-iron waste, and the cleanout in the end of this horizontal line 
amply protects it in the event of stoppage. The main vent is shown 
of cast iron, also the vent for the water closet, which is taken 
from a vented T-Y, while the vent for the bath trap is of wrought 

137 



138 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

iron, and connected to the cast-iron piping by means of a tapped 
fitting. 

Another method of bath-room connections is seen in Fig. D. 
While separate entrances into the stack are not provided for the 
bath and lavatory, the connection of the wastes from the two fixtures 
into one pipe connected to its own waste fitting is much preferable to 
the method shown in Fig. B, Plate 19. Of course a stoppage might 
occur between the junction of the two wastes and the Y, but the 
chances are against it. Therefore there is not so much danger of a 
stoppage affecting both fixtures. In this work an S-trap is used for 
the bath, and a cleanout to the floor provided. If such a cleanout is 
not used, the flooring over the trap should be put down with screws, 
in order that the trap may be made as accessible as possible in the 
event of cleaning. 

Fig. D shows a bath room under conditions often to be found, 
that is, there are no fixtures wasting into the same stack, either above 
or below the bath room. 

Under such conditions no main vent line is required, the fixture 
vents being connected directly into the stack above the highest fix- 
ture, and receiving their air supply through the roof extension of 
the stack. That part of the stack above the entrance of the highest 
fixture waste is called the soil vent in the case of a soil stack, and a 
waste vent in the case of a waste stack. 

In the present instance, there being no fixtures either above or 
below the bath room, there are no conditions present which might 
cause the siphonage of the water-closet trap, and there is conse- 
quently no necessity of venting it, particularly as it is located on the 
top floor, close to the roof connection. Under these conditions the 
only reason for venting a water closet would be that the fixture was 
located at a considerable distance from the stack, in which case vent- 
ing might be desirable. The question may arise as to the necessity 
of venting the other fixtures of Fig. D. In the case of these two 
fixtures conditions are somewhat different, for the water-closet waste 
enters the stack above the entrance of the waste from the bath and 
lavatory, and is of sufficient volume to make the possibility of siphon- 
age of these fixture traps strong enough to demand venting, espe- 
cially as there is an additional danger that the waste from either 
the bath or lavatory may exert siphonic influence on the other. If, 
however, the lavatory entered the stack above the entrance of the 



BATH ROOMS 139 

water closet, through a half-S trap, there would usually be little dan- 
ger of the siphonage of its trap, and consequently small necessity 
for venting it. 

In the several illustrations of bath rooms shown in Plates 19, 
20, 21, and 22, no other fixtures than the three common fixtures, 
water closet, bath, and lavatory, are shown. 

In the modern, well-appointed bath rooms to be found in many 
up-to-date residences of the wealthy, however, many other fixtures 
and devices for the comfort of the household are to be found. Many 
of these bath rooms contain as many as six or eight different plumb- 
ing fixtures. Among these additional fixtures may be named the 
foot bath, sitz bath, child's bath, shower bath, and bidet. The use 
•oi two lavatories is occasionally noticed, the pedestal lavatory of 
porcelain making an excellent appearance. 

In addition to the above fixtures, the use of shower baths in 
connection with the bath tub, and showers in connection with the 
lavatory, is much in vogue. 

Mirrors over the lavatories, porcelain stools, bath seats, and the 
various nickel soap dishes, sponge holders, etc., also add much to the 
general style of the bath room. 

Nearly all high-grade bath rooms are now furnished with porce- 
lain fixtures, including the lavatory, a very small amount of marble 
now being used for lavatory work, as compared with its use a few 
years ago. The porcelain-lined bath so generally used in bath rooms 
well appointed, but not of the most expensive type, is generally 
painted some dull color, leaving it to be finished and decorated in 
the prevailing style of the room. 

For the bath room, nothing neater can be devised than pure 
white, and, if decoration is desired, a narrow gilt band may be used. 

Tiling is used extensively in up-to-date bath-room work, includ- 
ing floor, walls, and ceiling. 

When the tiling does not cover the entire interior of the room, 
it is generally carried up on the walls to a distance of four to six 
feet from the floor, and capped with a half round or O. G. molding. 

A very neat innovation in bath tubs is the porcelain or porcelain- 
lined tub, sheathed on its exposed sides with tiling to conform to the 
prevailing style of the room. 



Plate XXI 

BATH ROOMS 



* 



Connections 

for Bath Room 



Plate 21 




Special 
Vent Fittings 



rW^' 



t+ 



feltf 

Sink J ; 
Connection** > 



S 



=£=^| 




iF=^r 



Special 
Waste Fittings- 
Fig. E 




Special 
Vent Fittings^ 




BATH ROOMS 

The bath-room connections shown in Figs. E and F, Plate 21, 
are designed to show the use of various special waste and vent fit- 
tings, which are possibly more useful in bath-room work than on 
any other part of the plumbing system. 

The water-closet waste fitting of Fig. F is along the same line 
as the vented T-Y of Fig. C, Plate 20, but is a better fitting for bath- 
room work, inasmuch as the branch is taken spirally into the side 
of the fitting, allowing the fixture to set closer to the wall. The 
water closet should set as close to the wall as practicable, as it is 
less in the way, and less liable to damage. 

The water closet is vented from a hub on the waste fitting. 

The waste fitting of the water closet of Fig. E is of similar pat- 
tern, with a special hub for receiving the waste of other fixtures. 
The work of Fig. E is almost entirely of iron pipe. 

The triple fittings on the waste and vent lines are made in vari- 
ous lengths and with different numbers of openings. By the use of 
these fittings the vents are so connected to the several traps that there 
is little danger of. stoppage of the vent openings. 

The fitting shown on the main vent line of Fig. E is a very 
useful one, and may be obtained with a short or long arm, with or 
without the additional vent hub. In the construction of many houses 
the plumbing is centralized so that the bath room and the kitchen sink 
may be served by the same stack. This custom is a common one, 
and is recognized by the triple fittings, which have the third hub 
for the use of the kitchen sink. It may also be used for a lavatory 
in a room adjacent to the bath room. 

The work of Fig. F is not entirely of iron or made up entirely 
of special fittings, but is intended to show the use of some of these 
special fittings on ordinary work. The special fittings shown are 
very few in number compared to the total number of these fittings. 
They may be procured for almost any special purpose, or to fit into 
almost any place. 

These fittings are usually more expensive than ordinary fittings, 

143 



144 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

but the practiced eye will easily see how useful they are, and how 
much work they save, for instance, in the matter of wiped and 
caulked joints, which are comparatively few, considering the amount 
of work covered. 

The use of special fittings accomplishes two things: it reduces 
the number of caulked and wiped joints, and it generally allows the 
use of continuous vents, two very important features. 

Too much attention cannot be given to the lighting and venti- 
lating of the bath room. The local vent, which is described under 
Plate 1 8, is of very great value in maintaining wholesome conditions 
in the bath room, as it not only ventilates the water closet while in 
use, but ventilates the entire room at all times. 

In addition to getting rid of the foul air, a good supply of fresh 
air should be furnished the bath room. 

Exterior lighting should always be provided. This may always 
be done in detached buildings, but in buildings that are built close up 
to the walls of other buildings it is often a difficult matter. In the bath 
or toilet room receiving light from a light shaft, the air is usually 
lifeless and musty, and in such cases all precautions possible in the 
matter of ventilation should be taken, and the room and fixtures 
kept as clean and wholesome as possible. The existence of disagree- 
able odors in the bath room may often be traced to a source over 
which the plumber has no control, as it is as likely* to occur in the 
plumbing system which is absolutely perfect as in the poorly con- 
structed system. 

This trouble sometimes arises from the use of highly scented 
toilet soaps, toilet water, etc., which are much in use in the private 
bath room, and but seldom used in public toilet rooms. 

When mixed with grease, and waste filled with impurities 
emanating from the skin, these strong perfumes give rise to heavy, 
nauseous odors, which are extremely offensive and which are often 
mistaken for escaping sewer gas. Most of the trouble comes from 
the slime in the traps and waste connections, but a source which is 
not often taken into account is the patent overflow of the lavatory 
bowl. The fact that this is a prolific source for the same trouble, 
makes it apparent that the same evil often arises in the use of the 
private lavatory in sleeping rooms, where the presence of foul odors 
is especially unhealthful. 

To remedy this evil, the strainers should be removed from the 



BATH ROOMS 145 

bath tub and lavatory bowl, and the waste connections and traps 
thoroughly cleaned out with potash or washing soda and boiling 
water. As to cleaning out the overflow, the bowl should be taken 
down and the overflow washed out in the same way. The traps and 
waste connections may be kept clean by occasionally using the alkali 
in the bath tub and lavatory, and turning on the hot water. 

If this trouble should occur in the bath room of Fig. B, Plate 
19, it will be seen that the long, unprotected lavatory waste would 
be the particular point to look to, as there is a large amount of sur- 
face here, which must constantly emit odors into the room. This 
point further emphasizes the fact that each fixture should have its 
own individual trap, located as close as possible to the fixture. 

A point which may properly be mentioned in connection with 
bath-room work relates to the painting of exposed soil piping. 

When soil pipe is exposed in the bath room it is unsightly at 
best, and to give it the best possible appearance it should be painted 
in the prevailing color of the room. 

It is not sufficient to cover it with several coats of paint, as the 
tar will soon strike through and show. 

The paint should not be applied until several coats of shellac, 
such as is used by pattern makers, are applied. The shellac will pre- 
vent the tar from striking through. 

Another point which may be of value is in relation to the clean- 
ing of marble and porcelain, which often become soiled with rust, 
oil, and other stains, which may generally be removed by a mixture 
of 2 parts of soda, 1 of pumice, and 1 of powdered chalk or whiting. 
These materials should be sifted and water added to form a paste, 
which should be applied to the soiled surface and allowed to remain 
for a number of hours, then washed off with soap and water. 



Plate XXII 

BATH ROOMS 









Connections f<*r 

£3a/"h f? o 0/77 

i,zj d=b 



Plate ZZ. 



R=. 



^-JT-t- 

4^ 




ft 9- G- 

<£7J&z*<=>zzgJd, 

<s7ixfu.2*e<§ 



^^ 



F5 



ok>2e ^z^ojo) 




BATH ROOMS 

A special feature of the bath room of Fig. G, Plate 22, is that 
no part of the work is of lead. Such construction as this is becoming 
very common. 

Fig. C, Plate 20, and Fig. E, Plate 21, also show bath-room 
connections which are of similar general construction, but in which 
special and expensive fittings are used. 

The work in Fig. G, it will be noted, is performed by the use 
of common fittings carried in stock by all dealers. The concealed 
work may be of either wrought or cast iron. 

If of wrought iron, the pipe should be galvanized. The traps 
for the bath and lavatory should be of brass. Another feature of 
this work is that each trap is served by a continuous vent. Several 
references have been made to continuous venting, a full description 
of which is to be found under Plates 26, 2.7, and 28. 

In Fig. H is shown a bath room the fixtures of which are 
unvented. 

While work of this kind is not allowed in many of our large 
towns and cities, it may be, and is used to a large extent in country 
districts and in the smaller towns. 

If the work is installed in the right manner, it may usually be 
made quite safe, even though unvented. In the first place, the bath 
room is usually on the upper floor and close to the roof pipe, features 
which are of advantage, as the supply of air through the soil vent is 
quick and direct. There is practically no danger that the lavatory 
and bath will exert siphonic influence on the water-closet trap, but 
under the right conditions the flushing of the water closet may exert 
such influence on them. In the case of the bath tub, it is necessary 
usually to carry its waste into the stack below the lead bend. In 
order to give all possible protection to this fixture, its trap should 
be of the drum pattern or of some non-siphonable make, and the 
waste outlet into the stack should be as short as possible. The lava- 
tory may best be located so that its waste may enter the stack above 

the entrance of the water closet. Here it receives the most direct 

149 



i 5 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

supply of air through the soil vent, and if a non-siphonable trap is 
used there will be practically no danger from siphonage. 

The same general precautions should be taken with other plumb- 
ing fixtures of the house. On an unvented system it is poor policy 
to locate a fixture in the cellar, close to the foot of a stack, and wast- 
ing into the horizontal line, as the liability of siphonage under such 
conditions is fully as great as at any other point in the system. 

Before leaving the subject of bath rooms, it will be of interest to 
many readers, no doubt, to study the fixtures and trimmings for an 
up-to-date, high-grade bath room. 

The water closet should be of the siphon- jet style, and of porce- 
lain, and should have nickel-plated flush and supply pipes, with flush 
tank finished in the natural wood, or enameled to suit the finish and 
decorations of the room. The low tank is at the present time more 
popular than the high tank, and the flush valve, doing away entirely 
with the flush tank, bids fair to become more popular than either. 

The flush valve may be exposed to view or concealed in the wall 
behind the water closet. 

The bath tub should be of porcelain, or at least porcelain lined, 
and should not be less than 5 or 5^2 ft. in length, and provided with 
nickel-plated waste and supply fittings. The bath may be furnished 
with a shower and shower curtain. 

There is a wide choice in the selection of the bath. The effect 
of the solid porcelain tub is massive, especially if its base rests upon 
the floor instead of upon legs. The only decoration that the bath 
should have is a narrow plain band or other decoration a short dis- 
tance below the rim. 

In lavatories, also, there is a wide range. Porcelain is prefer- 
able for fine work, and the one-piece lavatory of enameled cast iron 
comes next. 

If of porcelain, it should be furnished with porcelain legs and 
back. A very artistic fixture is the oval pedestal lavatory, which is 
massive and looks well with a heavy bath. The lavatory is much 
improved with a mirror following in its shape the general style of 
the lavatory. Nickel-plated legs or brackets may support the lava- 
tory, but do not appear to such advantage as the white porcelain 
legs. White is by all means the color for the bath room. It is cool 
and clean in appearance, and obliges frequent attention, as any dust 
or dirt that gathers shows plainly. 



BATH ROOMS 151 

Some fine bath rooms are now provided with fixtures which are 
supplied with water in such a way that no metal shows in connection 
with any of the exposed plumbing, the entire effect being of white. 

The shower should be provided with a porcelain or porcelain- 
lined receptor resting on the floor, and nickel-plated combination 
needle and shower bath, with shower curtain. 

The bidet is not in common use, but is to be found in some of 
the best-appointed bath rooms. It should correspond in style and 
decorations to the water closet. 

The foot and sitz baths should correspond closely in their mate- 
rial, style, and decoration to the bath tub. The best manufacturers 
now carry the same style, design, and decoration right through the 
line of bath-room fixtures, so that there is no reason why all the 
fittings of the bath room should not be in keeping. 



Plate XXIII 

POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CON- 
STRUCTION 



\k 



l/ar/<*us Cxamp/e^ Mate 23. 
*>f Poor F>rach'ce 




i^ ^^^ 



Kezzf 



i i 



JV 



t 

CteimTzey 








J&*6 






mrn^ 



*m 



Ioxzad. 




]Z><*9. 



W 







lt&D«I^llB 



POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 

In order that the plumbing system may be absolutely safe, count- 
less points of apparently small importance must be observed. The 
difference between a strictly high-class plumbing system and one of 
medium or poor quality is to be found largely in the observance or 
non-observance of the small points. In Plate 23 are to be seen some 
of the small points which are often disregarded. The instances of 
error to be seen in the illustration are not novel or to be rarely seen, 
but are constantly being made by mechanics who should or do know 
better. These errors are often made in ignorance, and it must be 
admitted that they are also often made, especially on contract work, 
in order that the work may be made to pay bigger profits. 

Next to the main trap, a fresh-air inlet should have been pro- 
vided, as the main trap should never be without it. If the nearest 
waste stack is near enough to the main trap, it would relieve any 
air lock, but is in no sense a fresh-air inlet, so long as waste enters it. 

The two stacks enter the house drain through tee fittings, 
whereas the connection should always be made with a Y-branch and 
eighth bend. 

Fixture No. 9 should waste into a Y. 

Tees should be used on no part of the drainage system, and 
T-Ys only on vertical lines. 

The continuation of the house drain beyond the soil stack 
forms a dead end. The main vent for the soil stack should reenter 
the stack below the T-Y on the first floor, and a trap vent from fix- 
ture No. 9 run over into it. The ending of this main vent in the 
vent of No. 9 allows no opportunity for collections of scale and rust 
to drain out of the main vent. 

The 2-in. waste stack should have been increased to 4 in. before 
passing through the roof. No stack of less size than 4 in. should 
pass through the roof. 

Taking up the fixtures in consecutive order, according to their 
numbers, the trap vent of No. 1 should be taken from the lead bend, 
and not from the vent horn of the closet bowl, and the local vent 

155 



156 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

from the same fixture should not drop after leaving the closet, but 
should pitch upward throughout its course. No. 2 should have sepa- 
rate entrance into the stack through a Y-branch, instead of being 
connected into the lead bend, the proper course allowing a shorter 
and more direct connection. The vent from No. 2 should have 
entered the vent from No. 1 above the top of No. 2. As it is now 
connected, if a stoppage occurs on the waste of No. 2, waste from 
this fixture will run off through its vent, thence through the vent of 
No. 1, and discharge into No. 1. 

Fixtures No. 3 and No. 4 should be trapped and vented inde- 
pendently, and be entered separately into the stack, or into the open- 
ings of a Y caulked into the Y already in use. 

The horizontal vent from Nos. 5 and 6 pitches in the wrong 
direction. Vent pipes should always pitch upward after leaving the 
trap. The vent connection of No. 5 should have been made into 
the horizontal arm of the bend rather than into the vertical arm, 
as the latter presents greater opportunity for the collection of refuse 
in the opening of the vent into the bend. 

The waste from No. 6 should have a separate entrance into the 
stack, but if it must be connected into the lead bend it should be con- 
nected into the upper part of the horizontal arm, as the opening of 
the waste into the heel of the bend is in such a position that soil and 
other refuse matter may drop directly into it in passing through 
the bend. 

The local vent from No. 5 enters the chimney at the second floor, 
and at a point below the highest opening into the chimney. When 
all local vents are not entered above the highest chimney opening 
there is danger that foul odors carried in the vent may enter rooms 
into which openings in the chimney communicate. Fixtures No. 7 and 
No. 8 are double trapped. The waste from No. 8 should be discon- 
nected from the trap of No. 7, and entered separately into the stack, 
or at least connected to the waste from No. 7 close to the point at 
which it enters the stack. Numerous errors might be mentioned 
which do not appear on Plate 23. Some of these errors are the fol- 
lowing. Earthenware house sewers are sometimes continued inside 
the foundation wall, and the house drain connected to it by means of 
a cement joint. 

Cleanouts are occasionally used which depend for a tight joint 
upon the use of a ring of putty. 



POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 157 

Drainage is allowed to enter the fresh-air inlet, and the latter is 
often constructed of too small pipe. 

By-passes are a very common form of error, and this particular 
error often occurs in the connection of the bath overflow to the 
outlet side of the bath trap, the proper connection being into the 
inlet to the trap. When thus connected the trap is practically short- 
circuited, gases and odors passing from the waste pipe through the 
overflow and out into the room. In the absence of the main trap, a 
by-pass means that direct communication exists between the house 
and the sewer. Much poor work is to be found in connection with 
refrigerator work. Refrigerators are sometimes found connected 
directly into the drainage system without a trap, and very often 
found connected directly into the drainage system through a trap, 
which is not much better than the first-named connection. Local 
vents may be found connected into main back-vent lines, and trap 
vents into flues. The blind vent is a deception also often practiced. 
It consists in running the trap vent back to the wall, or through 
the wall, and plugging the end, no connection being made into the 
main vent. This is not so bad in its results as the blind vent with 
an open end, which is also to be found, and through which direct 
communication with the sewer exists. The blind vent has every 
appearance of being honest work, and is no more than open fraud. 
It will be seen, then, that the opportunities for error are great, and 
it behooves the owner and inmate of the house to know right from 
wrong in plumbing construction. 

The instances of poor practice in plumbing construction to be 
noted in Plate 23 are self-evident to the person who has a knowledge 
of the subject of plumbing. They are errors which the plumbing 
inspector should not pass over. At the same time there is not an 
error to be found on this plate which is of an exaggerated nature, 
and which does not often appear. 

Indeed, some of the practices which have been criticised as 
errors are not looked upon, under some plumbing ordinances, as in 
any way out of character. 

For instance, the practice of connecting the waste from the lava- 
tory, as in fixture No. 2, into the lead bend, is a method allowed in 
many cities which boast of strict plumbing ordinances. 

Poor practices are not alone confined to the methods of making 
connections, but appear in various other ways. 



158 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The use of inferior material is a very common matter, and is 
to be met in connection with plumbing construction at almost every 
point. 

The use of light cast-iron soil pipe instead of extra-heavy pipe 
is an instance, as also the use of very light weights of lead pipe, lead 
traps, bends, etc. 

The use of light lead has reached such a point that much of that 
used on cheap work is entirely unfit for its purpose, inasmuch as it 
is so thin that it can withstand very little rough usage. In this con- 
nection it may be stated that one of the advantages in the rapid dis- 
placing of lead pipe, traps, etc., is the fact that stiffer and more 
durable materials are taking the place of lead. 

Many other instances might be named of the use of inferior 
materials, such as cheaply constructed brass work of poor metal, 
tanks lined with metal of the thinnest quality, fixtures full of imper- 
fections, etc. 

These results have been reached very largely owing to the keen 
competition of recent years. 

It is true that plumbing construction can be made possibly more 
deceptive than any other branch of building construction. One rea- 
son for this is the fact that such a large part of the work is concealed. 
Frequently, to judge from the neat appearance of fixtures, with their 
bright nickel work, the plumbing system must be an -excellent one, 
whereas in reality it may be of the poorest description, for the con- 
cealed work, which is generally the most important from a sanitary 
standpoint, may be installed in any but a sanitary manner. 



Plate XXIV 



" ROUGHING-IN "— USE OF CLEANOUTS 






. 



Roughing, with Work 

Ready for Water Test 



Plate Z4 





^Bath Room 
Fixtures 




J 



fe 





e 




Rain 
Leader 



IT 




Kitchen 
Fixtures 




+ 



Wash 
Trays 



3 




4 



4" 

Fresh Air 
Inlet 



(Main 
Trap 




^: 



" ROUGHING-IN " 

That part of the work on the plumbing system known as the 
" roughing-in " is shown in Plate 24. 

As will be noted, when the work has progressed to this point, 
all soil piping has been run, from a point 10 ft. outside the founda- 
tion, through the cellar, and all stacks run up through the roof, their 
vent stacks also run and completed, all waste fittings and vent fit- 
tings on mains inserted, and all branch fixture wastes and vents 
completed as far as possible. In the roughing, the fresh-air inlet is 
included, all cleanouts on the soil piping, rain leaders if they are to 
enter the drainage system inside the cellar, all floor and yard 
drains, etc. 

In fact, when the roughing is complete, little should remain to 
be done before the fixtures are set in place. The water test is gen- 
erally applied to the plumbing at this point. This, when properly 
applied, is a most thorough test, and a test which cannot be applied 
after the walls are plastered. 

Therefore, in the roughing, just as much of the work should be 
included as possible, in order that as much of the piping and as many 
of the joints as possible may be tested with hydraulic pressure. 

Therefore, all fixture wastes and vents should be completed if 
practicable, or brought as near completion as possible. 

The vent for the water closet may almost always be completed, 
unless nickel is to be used. Traps that are located under floors may 
usually be placed in position, inlet connections made as far as pos- 
sible, and the outlet into the stack completed. All ferrule connec- 
tions, whether on the vent or on the drainage system, should be made 
before the roughing can be considered complete. It will be noted 
that sizes for all pipes in the plumbing system of Fig. 24 are given, 
these sizes corresponding to the sizes demanded in most plumbing 
ordinances. 

In the case of the kitchen sink, however, some ordinances now 

require a 2-in. waste instead of 1^2 in., a requirement which is in 

the line of good practice. 

161 



162 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

When the fixture wastes are roughed in, great care should be 
taken that the long runs of lead pipe beneath floors are properly 
supported. 

If not supported, the lead pipe is very sure to sag, thus forming 
traps in the waste. The best method is to support straight runs of 
lead waste on boards, properly secured. 

Fixture wastes of greater length than 6 ft. should always be run 
of more rigid material than lead, either of cast or galvanized wrought 
iron or of brass. 

As elsewhere noted, nothing but coated cast-iron pipe should 
ever be used underground, as the action of the moisture of the earth 
is very harmful to wrought-iron or steel pipe, and also to unprotected 
cast-iron pipe. There is really no necessity for coating cast-iron pipe 
that is not buried, with tar or asphaltum, for, excepting when under- 
ground, there is rarely any harmful action that takes place. 

CLEANOUTS 

The connection shown on the sewer side of the main trap in 
Plate 24 is an excellent one, and is a practice now demanded wher- 
ever possible by many plumbing ordinances. 

The chief value of such a connection is that it allows a cleanout 
to be used in the end of the Y-branch into which -the main trap 
discharges. 

This cleanout controls the straight run of house drain into the 
house sewer, and a considerable length of the latter, while the clean- 
out at the opposite end of the house drain controls that section of the 
drain, and the two cleanouts on the main trap complete the entire 
control of the house drain and house sewer. 

Nothing can add more to the worth of the plumbing system than 
the intelligent and liberal use of cleanouts. The money invested in 
cleanouts is a good investment always, for their use often saves not 
only much annoyance, but avoids the breaking into pipes to remove 
stoppages. 

Every trap on the plumbing system, with the exception of water- 
closet traps and other traps combined in the fixture itself, should be 
provided with a cleanout. All cleanout screws should be of brass. 
Cleanouts for use on soil piping are of two kinds, entirely of brass 
or having the body of iron and the screw of brass. 



CLEANOUTS 163 

The latter is known as the iron-body cleanout. The threaded 
parts of cleanouts should have at least six threads, tapered, and of 
iron-pipe size. Cleanouts should be of the full size of the pipe or 
trap which they serve, up to a diameter of 5 in., and not less than 
5 in. in size for larger traps. 

Cleanouts should always be used in the ends of Ys into which 
vertical stacks connect, as shown in Fig. E, Plate 14, and in the ends 
of all horizontal branches of soil or waste pipes. Quarter bends 
being used on rain leaders, cleanouts used on their traps must be 
depended upon for cleaning purposes. 

A cleanout should be used at each change in direction of hori- 
zontal piping. By this means each run of piping is fully controlled 
in the event of stoppage. 

The cleanouts thus far mentioned are known as end clean- 
outs. 

In long runs of horizontal waste and soil pipe it is often neces- 
sary to provide cleanouts at intermediate points. Special cleanout 
fittings are made for this purpose, into which the cleanout cover 
screws. 

They should be placed not farther than 30 ft. apart, and a more 
liberal use of them can be made with advantage. 

All cleanouts should be made tight with a gasket, and no clean- 
out depending on the use of putty for a tight joint should be allowed. 

All cleanouts in main traps that are underground, or any other 
cleanout that is underground, should be made accessible by means 
of depressions in the concrete bottom, and cleanouts outside the walls 
of the house should be located in accessible manholes. 

The gasket generally used on cleanouts is of rubber, and if the 
gasket has been in use for a considerable length of time, it is almost 
certain to be destroyed in removing the cleanout cover. If not de- 
stroyed, it is probable that it has become so hard and lifeless that, if 
again used, a tight joint cannot be made. Therefore a new gasket 
should be used on a cleanout whenever the cover is removed, after 
having been in use long enough to get into this condition. 

Another form of cleanout, not extensively used, however, makes 
tight by means of a ground joint. The advantage of this cleanout 
is that it is free from the objectionable features incident to the use 
of gaskets. The ground joint is also often easier to open than the 
screw joint. 



i6 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The foregoing remarks apply only to cleanouts used on the large 
drainage piping. 

There are certain additional facts to be considered also, concern- 
ing cleanouts on other parts of the plumbing system. 

Whenever brass and galvanized-iron pipe is used for waste pur- 
poses, cleanouts should be liberally used at points where a change in 
direction occurs. 

All drum traps located under floors should have their cleanout 
covers flush with the floor, in order to make them accessible without 
the removal of flooring. Such cleanout covers may be concealed 
beneath nickel-plated covers or guards screwed to the floor. The 
cleanouts of all traps should be on the inlet side of the trap, and sub- 
merged wherever possible. Submerged cleanouts show an imper- 
fect joint by leakage, whereas the same imperfection in the case of 
a cleanout not submerged might remain undetected for an indefinite 
length of time. 

Cleanouts on fixture vents are demanded by the plumbing ordi- 
nances of certain cities, but in a vast majority of cases it is probably 
a practice which has little value. The reason for this is that usually 
use of the cleanout is by the inmates only, who know so little con- 
cerning the purpose of the vent and of the cleanout that it is almost 
never made use of. When there is a stoppage of the waste it makes 
itself known at once, but a stoppage of the vent opening is never 
known, and consequently the remedy, by means of the cleanout, never 
applied. 






Plate XXV 

TESTING OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM 
THE WATER, AIR, SMOKE, AND 
PEPPERMINT TESTS 



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TESTING OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM 

All properly arranged plumbing ordinances now demand that 
two tests shall be applied to each newly constructed plumbing sys- 
tem — one when the roughing has been completed, and the other when 
the entire plumbing system has been completed and is ready for use. 
No drainage pipe, vent pipe, or fitting should be concealed in parti- 
tions or between floors or buried underground until after the first test 
has been applied and the work inspected by the proper official. 

These tests are for the purpose of ensuring correct work, free 
from defects arising in construction and manufacture. There are 
four different methods of testing the plumbing system — the water 
test, air test, peppermint test, and smoke test. Of these, the water, 
peppermint, and smoke tests are most commonly used. 

The water and air tests are chiefly used as the first test on new 
work. When it comes to the final test, either the peppermint or 
smoke test may be applied. Each is thorough when properly applied. 

The question as to which is the better test is open to debate, each 
test having certain advantages and possible disadvantages. 

Before the final test is applied, all fixtures should be in position 
and the system entirely complete, and the traps filled with water. 

On old work in residences and other finished and occupied build- 
ings, the water test cannot be applied, owing to the damage that 
might result. Under these conditions, either the peppermint or 
smoke test should be used. The testing of old work should be done 
much oftener than it is, as it is of much value, not only in showing 
defects in joints and the material for piping and connections, but also 
in disclosing by-passes and other wrong connections, stoppages, the 
loss of trap seals, the absence of traps on rain leaders and drains, etc. 

THE WATER TEST 

The water test is applied to the roughing of all new work, unless 

water is not at hand or there is danger of its freezing, in which case 

the air test may be applied. 

167 



168 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Plate 24 shows the plumbing system ready for testing. All 
openings must be closed. Lead bends, traps, and pipes must have 
their ends soldered, and wrought-iron pipe ends must be capped. 
The ends of pipes, bends, etc., should be closed when the roughing 
is completed, without regard to the test, in order to prevent refuse 
of any kind from entering the system. 

Soil-pipe openings should be closed by specially devised stoppers 
or testing plugs, as shown in the three illustrations of Plate 25. 

These openings would include the house-drain outlet, fresh-air 
inlet, rain leaders, floor drains, etc. 

If the stacks do not end above the roof on or near the same 
level, the shorter stacks should have their open ends plugged. 

With the plumbing system thus prepared, water is filled into 
the system until it overflows from the highest stack onto the roof. 

The test is generally made by the plumber, in the presence of 
the plumbing inspector, and the water is generally required to stand 
for several hours before being drawn off. 

This is for the purpose of exposing leaks which sometimes do 
not make themselves known for a time. 

Defects often do not appear until the water has been standing 
long enough to thoroughly soak through the oakum. Water may be 
filled into the system through any opening, the fresh-air inlet often 
being a convenient point. 

Testing plugs are made with a provision allowing water to pass 
through them, for the purpose of filling the piping. Such a plug, 
with its connection, is shown in the fresh-air inlet of Fig. A. Sev- 
eral different makes of testing plugs that do good service are now 
on the market, several forms of which are shown in Fig. B. 

The most common form is that shown at the right-hand end. 
It makes tight by means of the expansion of a heavy rubber ring 
against the inner surface of the pipe. The ring is expanded between 
two iron plates brought together by a large hand nut. 

Plugs of this description will not generally hold much over 50 
lbs. pressure without being blown out. 

A very good plug for high pressures is one which clamps around 
the outside of the hub, making tight by means of a rubber packing 
forced against the end of the hub. This testing plug is shown in 
Fig. B. 

The same plug may be applied to the spigot end of a pipe by 



THE WATER TEST 



169 



using a split collar against which the clamp may hold. In Fig. A 
the use of a double testing plug is shown. 

This is a valuable device for the connection shown, and for 
closing the main-trap outlet. 

In using this test, water should be filled into the system slowly, 
and as fast as defects appear they should be made tight before rais- 
ing the water higher. 

There are two reasons for this. A small leak at a high point 
may allow water to trickle down the pipe, and thus make it difficult 
to locate. If the system is quickly filled, a large quantity of water 
may escape from some large defect before it can be drawn off. 

It is sometimes necessary to test certain sections of the system 
as the work progresses. 

In making such tests there should be a column of water at least 
10 ft. in height above all parts of the work to be tested. 

Very high stacks should be tested in sections of not over 75 ft. 
in length, as the pressure of water when such a stack is tested entire 
is very great, and cannot be applied with safety. 

To find the pressure that is being exerted at any point on the 
plumbing system, multiply the vertical distance of this point from 
the top of the highest stack by .434, the pressure exerted by one 
foot of water. This will give the pressure in pounds per square 
inch. Thus, a point 50 ft. from the top will be under a pressure of 
50 X -434 = 2I -7 lbs. per sq. in. 

The following table may be valuable in this connection: 



TABLE OF PRESSURES OF WATER 





Pressure 






Pressure 




Pressure 


Head per sq. in. 


Head per sq. in. 


Head 


per sq. in. 


I ft. 


. . .43 lbs. 


55 ft. . .23.82 lbs. 


I IO ft. 


. .47.64 lbs 


5 " ■ 


.. 2.16 " 


60 " 




25-99 " 


115 " • 


..49.81 " 


10 " . 


■■ 4-33 " 


65 " 




28.15 " 


I20 " . 


-.51-98 " 


15 " • 


.. 6.49 " 


70 " 




30.32 " 


125 " . 


• -54-15 " 


20 " . 


.. 8.66 " 


75 " 




32.48 " 


I30 " . 


-.56-31 " 


25 " 


..10.82 " 


80 " 




34.65 " 


135 " • 


..58.48 " 


30 " 


..12.99 " 


85 " 




36.82 " 


140 " 


..60.64 " 


35 " 


..15.16 " 


90 " 




38.98 '< 


145 " 


..62.81 " 


40 " 


..17.32 " 


95 " 




•41.15 " 


150 " 


..64.97 " 


45 " 


..19.49 " 


100 " 




■43-31 " 


155 " 


...67.14 " 


50 " 


..21.65 " 


105 " 




•45-48 " 


l60 " 


...69.31 « 



170 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 





Pressure 




Pressure 






Pressure 


Head per sq. in 


Head 


per sq. in. 


Head per sq. in. 


165 ft. 


. 71.47 lbs. 240 ft 


. . 103.96 lbs. 


330 ft. .142.95 lbs 


I70 " . 


•• 73-64 ' 


245 " 


..106.13 " 


340 ' 




147.28 " 


175 " • 


■• 75-80 ' 


250 " 


. . 108.29 " 


350 " 




I5I-6I " 


l80 " . 


■• 77-97 ' 


255 " 


..110.46 " 


360 " 




155-94 " 


185 " . 


. . 80.14 ' 


260 " 


...112.62 " 


370 " 




160.27 " 


I90 " . 


. 82.30 ' 


265 " 


..114.79 " 


380 " 




164.61 " 


195 " • 


• 84.47 ' 


270 " 


..116.96 " 


390 " 




168.94 " 


200 " . 


. 86.63 ' 


275 " 


. . 119.12 " 


4OO " 




173.27 " 


205 " . 


. 88.80 ' 


280 " 


. . 121.29 " 


500 ' 




216.58 " 


2IO " . 


. 90.96 ' 


< , 285 " 


••123-45 " 


60O " 




259.90 " 


215 " . 


• 93-14 ' 


290 " 


..125.62 " 


700 " 




303.22 " 


220 " . 


- 95-3o ' 


295 " . 


..127.78 " 


800 " 




346.54 " 


225 " . 


• 97-49 ' 


300 " . 


..129.95 " 


9OO " 




389.86 " 


23O " . 


• 99-63 ' 


310 " . 


..134.28 " 


IOOO " 




433-18 " 


235 " • • 


.101.79 ' 


320 " . 


..138.62 " 









THE AIR TEST 



When the air test is applied to the roughing, air should be 
forced into the system through a force pump, until a pressure of 10 
lbs. is reached, 10 lbs. representing 20 in. of mercury. The air test 
is not so convenient and satisfactory to the plumber as the water 
test, for the location of a small leakage of air is not -so easily found 
as a small leakage of water. Generally, in the case of a small air 
leak, the plumber goes "over the pipe with a lather of soap applied 
with a brush. The escaping air will form a bubble, thus showing the 
location of a defect. 

However, the air test subjects all parts of the system to the 
same uniform pressure, while the pressure in the water test varies 
from zero pressure at the top to a pressure at the bottom depending 
upon the height of the stack. In applying the air test, all openings 
are closed. Through any convenient plug, a gas pipe is connected, 
to which a mercury gauge is attached, and hose connection made 
to the force pump. The air pumped into the system exerts a pres- 
sure on the mercury, forcing it upward in the tube about two inches 
for each pound of air pressure. 






THE PEPPERMINT TEST 171 

THE SMOKE TEST 

In applying the smoke test, a machine designed for the purpose 
of producing a heavy volume of black smoke is used. Various mate- 
rials are used in this machine for producing the smoke, among them 
being oily cotton waste, tarred paper, and oakum which has been 
soaked in petroleum. Waste is the best material, as it gives off a 
dense smoke and is not so inflammable as most other materials. In 
Fig. C, Plate 25, is shown the manner in which the smoke test is 
applied. Generally the hose connection from the smoke machine is 
run through a lead cap which is closed up with putty. The smoke- 
test plug shown in Fig. B is also used, the smoke passing through 
the plug. 

After the whole system is filled with smoke, an air pressure 
equal to a one-inch water column is applied. Defects are shown by 
puffs of smoke escaping through them. 

The smoke test appears to be displacing the peppermint test, 
and for work in general, it appears to be the more reliable of the two. 



THE PEPPERMINT TEST 

If the final test is to be made with peppermint, a mixture of 
2 ounces of oil of peppermint to a gallon of hot water is the require- 
ment for an ordinary house. 

On large work, 2 ounces of peppermint should be used for each 
stack up to five stories and basement in height, and for each addi- 
tional five stories, or fractional part of that number, an additional 
ounce per stack. The peppermint should be poured into the roof' 
opening and the opening sealed. The person who has handled the 
peppermint should not enter the building until the test has been com- 
pleted, as the odor which he carries will spread about the house. 

Peppermint has a very penetrating odor, and its fumes quickly 
reach every part of the system, and by their escape bring attention 
to defects. A great point against the use of peppermint is that 
through a large defect the peppermint will pour in sufficient quantity 
to quickly fill the house with the odor, making it difficult to locate 
other leaks. Under certain conditions, however, the peppermint test 
seems to be the more reliable. 



1 72 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

■ 

For instance, on old work, much of the soil piping is often buried 
underground. In the event of defects underground, the peppermint 
fumes will often penetrate through into the cellar, whereas smoke 
would not. 

At the present time there are comparatively few towns of size, 
or cities, which do not demand the testing and inspection of the 
plumbing system, and, without doubt, no other factor has resulted 
in an equal amount of good in the attainment of sanitary work. 

Such provision makes it far more difficult for work to be con- 
structed of inferior material and with wrong connections, as between 
the testing and inspection of the system many of these features are 
discovered. 

It is almost an impossibility to provide country plumbing con- 
struction with the advantages of the inspection and test. 

The result of inability under the circumstances, to provide such 
regulation, results in the construction of a considerable amount of 
poor and unsanitary work in the country. 

This condition has been much improved in recent years, how- 
ever, chiefly through the demands of owners for tests to be made in 
the presence of architect and owner, and through the effort of many 
architects to demand these things in their specifications. 



Plate XXVI 

CONTINUOUS VENTING 



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Continuous Venting 



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CONTINUOUS VENTING 

As previously stated, it is necessary to provide a system of vents 
to supply air to the fixture traps, in order that they may not suffer 
from the siphonage of their seals. 

The one great objection to the system of venting called crown 
venting is the fact that a vast majority of vents are found to be almost, 
if not completely closed, at the end of a few years of service. This 
result comes about chiefly owing to the location of the opening of 
the trap vent into the trap. Of necessity the vent of most traps, as 
ordinarily installed, must be taken off at such a point that this open- 
ing readily closes up with grease, lint, etc. If the stoppage came on 
the waste it would quickly become apparent, but a stoppage of the 
vent cannot become known usually, for the fixture may be used as 
readily as if the vent were free, and in many cases the trap may lose 
its seal owing to the stoppage of the vent, and the fixture still be 
used, the actual conditions remaining unknown to the inmates. 

In the use of the half-S trap, however, the vent may often be 
taken off the horizontal arm of the trap at such a distance from the 
trap itself that much less difficulty is experienced from stoppages of 
its vent opening. 

The S-trap or other trap in which the outlet pipe is carried 
horizontally from the trap, or nearly so, may be used in continuous 
vent work, but traps of the style of full S or ^4-S traps cannot be 
used, the reason for which will soon appear. 

Plate 26 shows three illustrations of work in which the con- 
tinuous vent principle is applied. Many attempts have been made 
to provide special forms of traps whose vent openings would not 
close up, and mechanical devices have been used for the same pur- 
pose, but without satisfactory results. The continuous vent, how- 
ever, without resort to special contrivances or devices, vents the trap 
perfectly, and in such a way that there is little, and in fact no dan- 
ger of the vent-opening closing up. 

The three fixtures in Fig. C are provided with continuous vents, 
the half S-trap being used on each. It consists merely in connecting 
the outlet of the trap into a waste fitting so located that a vent may 

175 



i 7 6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

be taken off the top of the same fitting. It will be readily seen that 
the possibility of the stoppage of the openings of these vent pipes is 
very small in comparison with work of ordinary character, in which 
the vent is connected to the trap. Wrought iron is generally used 
for the waste and vent on work that is concealed, while brass is much 
used on exposed work. Figs. A and B show the same work installed 
with cast-iron pipe. The objection to the use of cast-iron pipe on 
this work is that it is not made smaller than of 2-in. diameter. The 
fittings being so large is another reason for not using it so exten- 
sively as wrought iron. 

In all continuous vent work the vent is a continuation of the 
waste line. 

As will be seen in connection with several later plates, the con- 
tinuous vent finds excellent application to groups and lines of fixtures 
on large work, such as lines of urinals or lavatories in public toilet 
rooms. The fact that the vent opening is in no danger of stoppage 
is sufficient to recommend the continuous vent to universal use, even 
if no other advantages were to be gained. An additional advantage 
of importance, gained by the continuous vent, is a decreased rate of 
evaporation of the trap seal. This result is to be expected, owing to 
the distance of the vent connection from the seal of the trap. 

Fig. B shows the continuous vent applied to two lavatories, back 
to back, on opposite sides of the same partition. For fixtures thus 
relatively located, the continuous vent is of very great value not only 
because of the advantages that are gained as named above, but also 
for the reason that a saving in cost of construction is effected by its 
use. As far as the waste and vent for the two fixtures are concerned, 
no more labor or stock is used than in constructing the waste and 
vent for one alone. 

It may not be clear to the reader that traps with other than a 
horizontal outlet cannot be used on continuous vent work. 

As already stated elsewhere, in order to prevent the siphon from 
operating, air must be brought into it at or near its crown. If air 
is brought into the long outlet arm of the siphon, it will not break 
its action. In the same way, a vent taken off the outlet at some dis- 
tance down from the crown of the fy-S sink trap, shown in Plate 9, 
will not accomplish results. In order, then, that air may be admitted 
on the same level as the trap seal and at a distance from it, a trap of 
the general design of the half-S trap must be used. 



Plate XXVII 

CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO-FLOOR 

WORK 



Continuous ISenHn? P/a/ * z Z ^ 
f<*r 7*yo-/"/o°r Work 




72SOJ2S Jg>Z*Q22S 



CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO-FLOOR WORK 

The continuous venting of fixture traps is sometimes known as 
" venting in the rough," the origin of the phrase being easily under- 
stood after referring to Plate 27, the connections for which are 
almost wholly made when the roughing is installed. In many towns 
and cities double apartment houses, with two flats on each side, are 
very common, and in buildings of this kind the continuous-vent prin- 
ciple may be applied to very great advantage, after the manner 
shown in Plate 27. 

This same style of work may be used in many other buildings 
where the plumbing fixtures are on two floors, and assembled in a 
manner similar to the assembling of the fixtures in Plate 2.7. So 
long as the stack serves fixtures on two floors only, it does not mat- 
ter whether the two floors are consecutive, or whether one or more 
floors intervene between the two on which the fixtures are located. 

In double apartment houses the rooms are generally so planned, 
and the plumbing fixtures so located, that the stacks may be carried 
up in the wall which divides the two sides of the building. When 
so arranged, only half the number of vertical stacks is needed that 
would otherwise be necessary. 

Thus, one stack may serve all four kitchen sinks in the four- 
flat apartment building, the four fixtures being backed up to each 
other in pairs, on opposite sides of the division wall or partition, 
under which conditions the system shown in Plate 27 may easily be 
applied. 

The main waste and vent stacks are run in the usual manner, 
the two being connected above the highest fixture, and below the 
lowest waste entrance. A novel departure is made in connecting 
the traps of the two fixtures on the upper floor. Instead of connect- 
ing them into the waste stack in the ordinary manner, they are con- 
nected into the line that would ordinarily be the main vent stack. 

As the upper-floor fixtures are not connected into the waste 
stack, the line of pipe above the waste fitting of the lower floor is a 
vent, and into this vent line the vent line from the other two fix- 
tures connects. 

179 



180 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In this style of work, neither vertical stack is entirely a waste 
stack, or entirely a vent stack. While altogether unlike the regular 
two-floor work, this style of work is perfectly legitimate. 

It can be applied only to two floors, for the third-floor fixtures 
would have to waste into one or the other of the two vertical stacks, 
and that stack could no longer be used as a vent line. 

A comparison of this plate with Plate 28 will show that this 
statement must be true, and it will also show that the use of the 
connections such as Plate 27 shows, calls for much less outlay in 
stock and labor per fixture than does the ordinary method of con- 
tinuous venting. 

As compared with crown venting, the work of Plate 27 calls 
for far less labor and considerably less stock. 

If crown venting were employed, the main vent line would have 
to be run and connected with the waste stack above and below, 
as shown. 

A fitting on the main vent line would be required at each floor, 
while the waste fittings would remain the same. 

Separate vents would have to be run from the crown of each 
trap, necessitating, in the case of lead work, a wiped joint on the 
trap and another at the vent fitting. This comparison will show that 
the labor involved in the continuous venting of two-floor work of the 
style shown in Plate 27 is very much less than on the same system 
installed according to the ordinary methods of crown venting. 

While in general it would seem that continuous venting can be 
done with less labor, it cannot so often be done with less stock, but 
its advantages are so great that it would appear that in the higher 
grade of construction, at least, it would soon come into general use. 
At the present time its use is demanded by some few city ordinances, 
and recommended by others. 

There is this to be said concerning its adoption: the continuous 
vent cannot always be applied, and in some cases it could not be 
applied without considerable additional cost. 

Owing to these conditions it would seem unwise to attempt to 
demand its use without regard to circumstances surrounding the 
fixture, but at the same time, much good work would be provided 
for in the future, and a long step taken in advance, if plumbing 
ordinances would call for the use of continuous venting wherever 
practicable. 






Plate XXVIII 



CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO LINES 
OF FIXTURES ON THREE OR MORE 
FLOORS— PRACTICAL REQUIRE- 
MENTS OF VENTING 



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CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO LINES OF FIX- 
TURES ON THREE OR MORE FLOORS 

On the preceding plate the continuous vent is shown in a spe- 
cial application to two-floor work for four-flat apartment buildings. 
In Plate 28 the continuous vent is shown as applied to double lines 
of fixtures on three or more floors. Such double lines of fixtures 
are often to be found in double apartment buildings. 

In the larger cities such buildings are often many stories in 
height, and in the towns and smaller cities double apartment build- 
ings of three and four stories are very common. 

In office buildings, also, fixtures are often so located that two 
of them on the same floor, and on opposite sides of a wall or parti- 
tion, waste into the same stack. The work shown in Plate 28 applies 
to many cases of similar nature. The waste from each of the two 
adjacent fixtures is carried into the same waste fitting, from th3 
bottom of which a mutual waste is run to the waste stack, and from 
the top a mutual vent to the vent stack. 

In addition to gaining for each fixture the advantages derived 
from continuous venting, the work may often, and in fact usually, 
be done with less labor and material than if installed with the cus- 
tomary crown venting. While the matter of saving in the cost of 
construction might be questionable in the case of a single line of fix- 
tures, the addition of a second line of fixtures requires no additional 
material or labor, with the exception of the furnishing of the traps 
and connecting them to the waste fittings. 

The system shown is an excellent one, and without doubt will 
gradually come into general use, a result much to be desired. The 
entire system shown is of cast iron, but it may be said that for the 
main vent, and especially for the fixture wastes and vents, wrought 
iron is more generally used. In the case of the mutual fixture wastes 
and vents, wrought iron will effect a saving in expense, as sizes 
smaller than 2 in. may often be used, and cast-iron pipe is not made 
in sizes smaller than 2 in. 

183 




i8 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING 

The fixture vent should pitch upward from the trap at all 
points in order that condensation may drain into the trap, and it 
should be connected into the main vent line at a point higher than 
its fixture, so that, in the event of stoppage of the trap or waste, the 
fixture waste may not pass off through the vent. 

To provide against the latter evil, it is good practice in the case 
of a group of fixtures whose vents connect into a main branch vent, 
to run this branch so that its lowest vent fitting shall be at least two 
or three inches above the top of the highest fixture of the group. 

Formerly much vent work of lead was used, but the best prac- 
tice to-day calls for the use of galvanized iron or brass on all branch, 
main branch, and individual fixture vents of 2 in. or less in size. 
The use of lead for vent work is fast becoming limited to use in 
connection with lead traps, short connections being made into the 
wrought- iron or brass pipe. 

Main branch vents should be increased one size in diameter 
after passing 30 ft. 

When a fixture is located 8 ft. or more from the main vent, its 
trap vent should either be carried independently through the roof, or 
enter the main vent stack above all fixtures. 

Thus, in the case of the lavatory of Fig. C, Plate 20, if its dis- 
tance is 8 ft. or more from the stack, its vent should be run as above ; 
if its distance is 6 ft. or more, lead should not be used on its waste. 
Under such conditions the use of the continuous vent for the fixture, 
as shown, is excellent practice. 

Under Plate 13, it was shown that the main vent line might 
either run independently through the roof or reenter the soil or waste 
vent above the highest fixture. In many of the large cities this 
demand is qualified by requiring the running of a main vent sepa- 
rately through the roof, whenever such vent serves fixtures on more 
than six floors or extends more than 80 ft. above the grade line. 

Whenever main vent lines are reentered into soil or waste vents, 
no fixture should be located on any floor above such reentrance, and 
be connected to the soil, waste, vent, or back-vent pipes from fix- 
tures on floors below. 



<'** 



Plate XXIX 

CONTINUOUS VENTING OF WATER CLOS- 
ETS—CIRCUIT VENTS— LOOP VENTS 



Continuous Venring 

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CONTINUOUS VENTING OF WATER CLOSETS- 
CIRCUIT VENTS— LOOP VENTS 

In the system of plumbing shown on Plate 29, the venting of 
the several lines of water closets is accomplished by extending the 
horizontal soil line beyond the last fixture, and connecting this exten- 
sion into a main vertical line of vent at a point higher than the top 
of the fixtures. 

The main vent stack may be at either end of the line of fixtures, 
but when placed at the end opposite the soil stack the connection of 
the horizontal lines into the vent stack is usually much shorter and 
more direct, and installed with the use of less pipe. When placed 
at the same end as the soil line, the running back to this point of a 
long line of large-sized pipe would often be a difficult or impossible 
matter. 

This form of venting is not strictly on the continuous-vent prin- 
ciple as shown in the three preceding plates, but being along some- 
what the same general lines is often alluded to as continuous venting. 

This method is also known as circuit venting. 

The system of circuit vents, as prescribed by certain plumbing 
ordinances, consists in the extension of the horizontal branch soil or 
waste lines and the connection of these extensions into a main ver- 
tical vent stack, the entire system including both main soil or waste 
stack, main vent stack, and branch soil or waste lines, providing for 
each line of fixtures a complete air circulation through the branch 
which serves them. 

The advantages derived from this system, as applied to water- 
closet lines, may also be obtained for other fixtures. 

Fixtures of other character, such as the lavatory located on the 
second floor in Plate 29, are vented as shown in the case of this 
lavatory. The use of the circuit-vent system is of special value 
when applied to lines of water closets, such as are very common in 
public toilet rooms, for the reason that the free circulation of air 
through the horizontal lines does away with the necessity of venting 
the individual fixtures in the ordinary manner, that is, from the lead 
bend. A water closet, however, connected to a horizontal soil line 

187 



188 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

served by a circuit vent, and located 5 ft. or more from that line, 
should be vented in the usual manner. 

It will thus be seen that the continuous venting of lines of water 
closets by means of circuit vents, provides ample protection to the 
fixtures against siphonage, and effects a great saving in avoiding 
the outlay incident to installing a separate vent for each water closet. 

The common method of venting lines of water closets is shown 
in Fig. D, Plate 40. Any branch line of soil or waste pipe serving 
a line of two or more fixtures may be provided with a circuit vent 
to the advantage of the system. 

When the horizontal soil branch is of not more than 20 ft. in 
length, measuring from the main soil stack, and the line is not entered 
by more than four water closets, the vent extension may be reduced to 
3 in. from the end of the branch into the main vent stack. When a 
larger number than four water closets enter the horizontal soil branch, 
the vent extension should not be reduced in diameter, but should con- 
tinue of the same size as the soil branch, into the main vent stack. 

While not allowable to use quarter-bends on any part of the 
drainage system, they may be used on circuit vents, as shown in 
Plate 29. While much used on this work, a better form of practice 
is seen in the use of a T-Y or Y and eighth-bend, in place of the 
quarter-bend, thus allowing the use of an end cleanout, by means of 
which the entire horizontal branch could be controlled in the event 
of stoppage. 

In addition to the circuit vent, there is also what is known as 
the loop vent. The loop vent is a modified form of the circuit vent, 
used when a line or group of fixtures on a single floor is to be circuit- 
vented, and there are no fixtures on the floors above. 

In this case the soil or waste branch is extended beyond the 
line of fixtures, and run up as in the case of the circuit vent, and 
then looped over the line of fixtures into the soil or waste vent of 
the stack into which the branch soil or waste pipe connects. 

The loop vent may be used for a single line of fixtures, on a 
floor above which are other fixtures emptying into the same soil or 
waste stack, by connecting the loop into the main vent stack above 
the highest fixture of the group. 

The loop vent for a 4-in. soil branch may be 3 in. in diameter. 

For 5 and 6-in. soil branches, the loop vent should be 5 in. in 
diameter, and for larger sizes 6 in. 



Plate XXX 

PLUMBING FOR COTTAGE HOUSE- 
GENERAL REMARKS 



Plumbinq for 

Coitac/e House 



Plate 30 



s 





4 




PLUMBING FOR COTTAGE HOUSE— GENERAL 

REMARKS 

The only difference between the plumbing system of a small 
dwelling, such as the cottage house, and the larger systems to be 
found in large residences, etc., is that it is of a less complicated 
nature, the rooms being so laid out and the pipes so located that the 
plumbing of the house is much more centralized than is possible in 
larger work. It is quite customary in the construction of the cot- 
tage house to so arrange the piping that one stack will be able to 
serve all the fixtures in the house. For dwellings of any descrip- 
tion, this stack must not be less than 4 in. in diameter, for it is to 
receive the discharge from the water closet, for which nothing less 
than 4-in. pipe should ever be provided, and as the water closet is 
to be vented usually, a 2-in. main vent is required. 

In the case of two stacks of different size, it is better practice 
to have the larger one at the house end of the house drain, rather 
than to reduce after passing the larger stack to the size of the 
smaller stack. 

Thus, in Plate 30, if the house drain were continued to receive 
a 2-in. stack, and reduced after passing the 4-in. stack, the circula- 
tion of air through the system would not be so good as it would be 
with the 4-in. stack at the end of the line. It is always good policy 
to centralize the plumbing as far as possible, as any legitimate 
expedknt, looking to the simplification of a system that has now 
become somewhat complicated, is to be welcomed. It will mean less 
piping, and therefore less opportunity for defects, stoppages, etc. 

The sizes of pipes given in Plate 30 are those which are com- 
monly used, and to which no exception may be taken, unless with 
the sink and laundry tub, whose waste, according to the requirements 
of some ordinances, should be one size larger in diameter, which 
seems to be a wise requirement. 

On the plumbing systems of cottages, residences, etc., lead work 

seems to continue in use to a larger extent than on the work being 

installed- in larger buildings. It must be stated in this connection, 

that the use of lead is still followed to a large extent in certain sec- 

191 



192 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

tions of the country, the superseding of it by iron and brass being 
particularly noticeable in the large cities. 

For waste pipes the following table of weights may be safely 
followed : 

Diameter of Lead Pipe Weight per Foot 

1 in 2 lbs. 

iM" 2^ " 

I#" 3/2 " 

2 " 4 " 

4 " 6 " 

The amount of pressure on street mains must determine the 
weights of lead pipe proper for supplies, but for ordinary pressures 
the following table is safe to follow: 

Diameter of Lead Pipe Weight per Foot 

Y% in i l / 2 lbs. 

y 2 " 2 

ys 272 

Va ". .3 " 

1 " 4 " 

Sheet lead should never be less than 4 lbs., and 6 lbs. for roof 
flashings is preferable. The tendency to use light materials, owing 
to the keen competition of the present day, is very marked, and 
nowhere on the plumbing system more plainly to be seen than in the 
lead work. Lead bends and drum traps, for instance, are often used 
which are so fragile that the workman must be careful that in his 
handling of them they are not crushed. This is true also of the pipe. 
The weights given above, however, if obtained, will ensure solid and 
secure work. 

The choice of material for water-supply pipes should always be 
made with due consideration to the chemical properties of the water 
supply. This is true also in the matter of range boilers. Some 
waters will quickly attack wrought-iron pipe and boilers, and make 
renewal necessary in comparatively few years. 

Under such conditions, lead or brass supply pipes and copper 
range boilers should generally be used. 

On high-grade work, brass piping is now being extensively used, 
and for the best work all changes in direction are made by bending 
the pipe rather than by the use of elbows. 



Plate XXXI 

CONSTRUCTION OF CELLAR PIPING— 
THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC. 



Conshruct~i Q n of 

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THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC. 

Plate 31 shows the general form of the drainage piping in 
the cellar or basement. Many of the features which appear have 
been taken up under preceding plates, such as main trap and fresh- 
air inlet, cellar and subsoil drainage, etc., and will not be again 
considered here. 

Before taking up the consideration of the above subject, it will 
be well to clearly define the terms house drain and house sewer, con- 
cerning which there is often some confusion. 

The house drain is that portion of the horizontal piping of the 
drainage system of any building into which all the soil and waste 
pipes, whether vertical or horizontal, but inside the building, ulti- 
mately discharge. The house drain extends through the founda- 
tion wall. 

The house sewer is a continuation of the main drain, from the 
point where the latter ends, to its connection into the sewer or cesspool. 

The house drain and sewer, under any ordinary circumstances, 
should serve but the one building, it being entirely wrong to connect 
the sewage from any building into the house drain or house sewer 
of another building. The drainage system of each building should 
be entirely distinct and separate from all other buildings. 

It sometimes occurs in the large cities, where buildings of mam- 
mom proportions are erected, that in order to properly care for the 
vast amount of sewage collected over large areas and from many 
floors, it is necessary to make use of two house drains and sewers 
for different sections of the building, in which case the two systems 
are entirely separate. More than two house drains and sewers are 
rarely required. The running of the house drain, whether overhead 
or underground, is determined largely by the prevailing usages of 
different towns and cities. For instance, the prevailing construction 
of some cities is flat houses, in which all plumbing fixtures will be 
found on the several floors, and none in the basement or cellar, under 
which conditions the house drain may be run overhead. 

On the other hand, the prevailing dwelling houses of another 
city may have two or three single flats, the laundry tubs for the 

195 



196 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

several flats being placed in the cellar, which necessitates running 
the house drain underground. The house drain should be of extra- 
heavy iron pipe, and should be carried to a point 10 ft. from the 
inner face of the cellar wall. This means that two full lengths of 
soil pipe are to be used in running from the foundation wall to the 
house sewer. 

The reason for this requirement is the danger of broken earthen- 
ware pipe and fittings and cement joints, close to the foundation wall, 
with the consequent danger of the leeching of escaping sewage 
through the foundation walls into the cellar. When laid under- 
ground, nothing but extra-heavy tarred cast-iron pipe should be 
used, whether it be the house drain or branches from it. This is 
required for the reason that uncoated cast-iron pipe is in time de- 
stroyed by galvanic action when laid underground, and wrought iron 
and steel pipe suffers in the same way, but to a far greater extent. 
On no account should earthenware pipe enter the cellar. The best 
method of making the connection at the main trap is shown in Fig. A, 
Plate 25, as the use of an end cleanout is thus allowed, which will 
control the straight line out into the house sewer in the event of 
stoppage. If the house drain through the foundation wall cannot 
be laid low enough for the main trap to discharge into the Y from 
above, the Y may be used lying on its side. 

All entrances into the house drain, or into any horizontal soil 
or waste branch, should be made through Y-branches or Y-branches 
and bends. 

Into the house drain all floor drains, cellar drains, etc., should 
be connected. 

In the case of rain leaders, they should be connected into the 
house drain when brought inside the basement or cellar, but may also 
be run outside the foundation walls and entered into the house sewer. 
If, however, there is a separate public system for surface sewage, 
clear waste, such as coming from floor and yard drains, rain leaders, 
subsoil drainage, etc., should be connected into the house drain of the 
surface sewage system. 

The matter of the use of the main trap is generally determined 
by plumbing ordinance. The practice is varied, some cities demand- 
ing its use, others prohibiting it, and still others making its use 
optional. When the main trap is used, however, all connections into 
the main drain should be made on the house side of the trap. 



THE HOUSE DRAIN, ETC. 197 

The objection to the use of a main trap, due to the forcing of 
its seal, has caused a trial of two main traps on the house drain. 
The use of two traps, however, has not been taken up to any extent. 

Whenever two traps have been used, the fresh-air inlet has been 
taken off on the house side of the trap farthest from the sewer, and 
in order that there shall be no air lock between the two traps, a vent 
was taken off a fitting placed between the two traps. The idea of 
this arrangement was that, in case back pressure from the sewer 
was sufficient to force the seal of the first trap, the seal of the second 
trap could never be forced because of the vent between the two traps, 
and in this way sewer gas would be prevented from entering the 
house-drainage system. An objection advanced against the use of 
a single main trap is that it impedes the free outflow of sewage and 
is subject to stoppage. 

The use of two traps would certainly increase these troubles, 
and their use would seem to be inadvisable. As already stated, sim- 
plicity rather than complexity is to be desired in all parts of the 
plumbing system, and especially at such a point as the main trap, 
where serious trouble affects the entire system. 

As stated above, the house sewer begins at the point where the 
house drain ends, which is generally 10 ft. from the inside face of 
the foundation wall, although some plumbing ordinances make this 
distance only 5 ft. In general, the house sewer is constructed of 
vitrified earthen pipe, and should be one size larger than the house 
drain. If the house drain is 4 in. in diameter, the house sewer 
should be 5 in. 

All pipe that is buried deep underground, and therefore not 
easily accessible, should be of larger size than for the same line when 
running above ground, whether the pipe be used for drainage or 
supply purposes. When the house sewer is laid in made ground, or 
in ground that has been filled in, or is in danger of destruction from 
roots of trees or from the action of frost, earthenware pipe should 
never be used. Under these conditions nothing but extra-heavy 
tarred cast-iron pipe should be used, laid with caulked lead joints, but 
not with cement joints. W T hen the house sewer must of necessity 
run close to any cistern, or any source of water supply, it should be 
constructed of cast-iron pipe. 

Joints on the earthen pipe of house sewers should be given as 
careful attention as joints on any other part of the plumbing system, 



198 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

although this work is often constructed in a most careless manner. 
Portland cement of the best quality should be used, three parts of 
clean sand to one part of Portland cement. 

The opening between the spigot and the hub should be entirely 
filled with cement, and whatever cement has squeezed out into the 
interior of the pipe should be cleaned off and removed before the 
next length or fitting is laid. A lath is convenient for cutting off 
the superfluous cement. A stronger and better joint may be made by 
caulking a ring of oakum into the hub before the cement is put in. 

The spigot end should be inserted into the hub so that the 
thickness of the cement will be uniform around the circumference. 
Depressions should be cut into the bottom of the trench for the hubs 
to set into, thus allowing the pipe to rest firmly on its entire length 
rather than on the hubs only. The bottom of the trench should have 
a uniform grade of not less than 2 ft. in 100 ft., and more where 
possible, and in long lines of trench work it becomes almost neces- 
sary to have the grade laid out by an engineer in order that the work 
may be done properly. This is especially true when the total pitch 
for the entire length is barely sufficient, and must be distributed 
evenly. 

Before trenches are filled in, the earth around pipes should be 
thoroughly rammed, and no pipe, whether water or drainage, should 
be covered until inspected by the proper official. Changes in direc- 
tion of the house sewer, entrances into it of rain leaders, etc., should 
be done under the same general rules regulating like work in con- 
nection with the house drain. 

When rain leaders connect into the house drain or house sewer, 
it should be seen to that these two lines are of sufficient size to handle 
the large volume of rain water entering them during severe storms. 
The amount of water which a line of pipe can safely be depended 
upon to carry depends largely on the grade at which the pipe is laid. 

The connection of the house sewer into the street sewer should 
be made as shown in Plate 31, that is, by the use of a Y-branch on 
the main sewer and a bend on the house sewer. 

This is more satisfactory than entering a tee, just as it is on 
the house-drainage system. When the street sewer and house sewer 
are of such levels that a proper grade can be secured, the house sewer 
should enter the main street sewer above the center of the arch of 
the latter. 



Plate XXXII 

PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES— USE OF 
SPECIAL FITTINGS— BRASS PIPING 



- 



Plate 32 
Plumbing for Residence — 

Use of Special Fittings f 




PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES— USE OF SPECIAL 
FITTINGS— BRASS PIPING 

The plumbing for a residence, shown in Plate 32, shows the 
use of various special waste and vent fittings, which are now coming 
into use extensively on the best class of work. A special advantage 
gained in their use is that fixture traps may be easily provided with 
a continuous vent. In previous plates the running of continuous 
vents by the use of common fittings is to be seen. The use of spe- 
cial fittings often saves the making of one or more joints. While all 
the fixtures shown in Plate 32 are provided with continuous vent, it 
will be seen that conditions may often make it very difficult to apply 
this vent. It is very rare that a fixture is so located, however, that 
by the use of some one of the numerous special fittings or common 
fittings, it cannot be vented on the continuous principle. It will be 
noted that sizes of all pipes are given. 

For the ordinary residence, double house, two- and three-flat 
houses, and much other work, a 4-in. house drain and main stack is 
large enough for the work required of them. It is poor policy in 
constructing the house drain or the house sewer, or any horizontal 
drainage pipe, to use a pipe of larger size than is necessary, for it 
is much better to have the sewage which is flowing through a hori- 
zontal line fill the pipe well up on its sides than to have the pipe so 
large that the sewage flows in a thin stream at the bottom of it. In 
the latter case, heavy sewage is more liable to lodge in the pipe, 
while the use of a smaller pipe would have resulted in sufficient 
scouring action to carry it along through the pipe. It will be noticed 
that in Plate 32 the laundry tubs are located in the cellar. This is 
a very common practice. A strong point against it, however, is that, 
but for placing this fixture in the cellar, the house drain might be 
run overhead and in sight, which is always preferable to burying it 
underground. 

On high-grade work, such as is to be found in residences, apart- 
ment buildings, etc., brass piping is now largely used for waste and 
vent work. 

201 



Nominal Diameter 
of Pipe 

1^2 in. . . . 

2 

2^ " 


Weight per Foot 

. . 2.84 lbs. 

3.82 " 
. . 6.08 " 


3 " 


• • 7-Q2 " 


3/ 2 "... . 


•• 9-54 " 



202 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The proper weights of brass pipe are to be found in the follow- 
ing table: 

WEIGHTS OF BRASS PIPE 

Nominal Diameter 

of Pipe Weight per Foot 

4 in 11.29 lbs. 

4/ " 13.08 " 

5 " 15.37 " 

6 " 19.88 " 



Brass fittings used on drainage work should be cast, and of 
extra heavy weight, and of recessed pattern, similar to cast-iron 
recessed drainage fittings, as illustrated in Plate 44. 

With the various appliances now on the market, there is abso- 
lutely no excuse for using on brass and nickel pipes the tools designed 
for use on wrought-iron pipes. These appliances include brass pipe 
vises and wrenches of various makes, the use of which avoids all 
scratching of pipe and tubing, and the crushing of the latter result- 
ing from the use of common vises and pipe wrenches. 

Brass pipe work should always be put together with threaded 
connections of iron-pipe size, but never with slip joints and couplings. 

It often happens, both on supply and drainage work, that it is 
necessary or desirable to make a bend in the pipe rather than to use 
an elbow. The following is a practical method of performing this 
work, and the result, when the work is properly done, is a perfect 
bend. 

First fill the pipe to be bent with sand, and securely plug each 
end. Set the pipe on the work bench, with the point to be bent over- 
hanging. Place a plumber's furnace under the pipe, so that the flame 
heats the pipe at the bending point. To confine the heat, cover this 
part of the pipe with a piece of sheet iron, or a shovel, if more con- 
venient. See to it that the pipe does not become overheated. 

When it becomes sufficiently hot, the weight of the overhanging 
pipe will cause it to bend. With care and a little experience, sharp 
right-angle bends can be easily and neatly made in this manner. 

When heated, brass becomes very brittle, and it should not be 
removed, therefore, until somewhat cooled. 

If the overhanging end is too short to provide sufficient weight 
to cause the pipe to bend, a weight may be attached to the pipe. 



Plate XXXIII 



PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE— 
RAINLEADERS— PLUMBING CONSTRUC- 
TION FOR TENEMENT HOUSES 



Plumbing for 

Two-Flat House 



Plate 33 





-Rain 
Leader 





PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE 

The elevation of the plumbing for a two-flat house, with pipe 
sizes given, is shown on Plate 33. In general, the plumbing on build- 
ings of this class is confined to the kitchen sink, laundry tubs, and 
three bath-room fixtures. Although not shown in Plate 33, owing 
to lack of sufficient space, flat buildings of all classes should be pro- 
vided with refrigerator drainage. Usually in flat houses of two or 
three stories, a 4-in. bath-room stack and a 2-in. kitchen stack is 
required, although in some cases the 4-in. stack can be made to serve 
all the fixtures, obviating the use of a second stack. The use of two 
stacks is better, however, as separate entrance into the stacks can 
be gained for each fixture, which would be very difficult if the five 
fixtures entered one stack. In two- or three-flat houses the laundry 
tubs are sometimes located in the cellar, against which there is no 
special objection, if the cellar is well lighted and ventilated, except 
the matter of inconvenience to the tenants on the upper floors. In 
Plate 33 all fixtures have separate waste entrances, and it will be 
noted that the kitchen fixtures are served by the special method 
described and illustrated in Plate 27. 

It will be noted that the water closet on the upper floor is not 
vented. There is in reality no danger whatever of the siphonage of 
the water-closet trap when the fixture is located close to its stack, 
with no fixtures entering the stack on floors above, and therefore 
there is no necessity of venting it. Most plumbing ordinances ac- 
knowledge this fact by not demanding the venting of water closets 
thus located. 

In connection with this plate, the subject of rain leaders will be 
considered. 



RAIN LEADERS 

The size of rain leaders should never be less than 3 in., and 

as much larger as the roof area which is drained should require. 

Plumbing ordinances differ in trap requirements for rain leaders, 

205 



206 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

some requiring no leader trap when the main trap is used, others 
demanding leader traps even though the system is protected by the 
main trap. It goes without saying that each rain leader should be 
trapped on the system which has no main trap. It would appear 
wise to use the trap also on systems provided with main trap. There 
is no danger in this case of air lock from double trapping, for this 
trouble is obviated by the presence of the fresh-air inlet. The use of 
the trap prevents foul odors from the house drainage system, and pos- 
sible back pressure from the sewer, from finding their way through 
the rain leaders and conductor pipes and escaping through joints 
and defects in the latter into the rooms of the house through open 
windows. The usual method is to run the rain leader, of cast or 
wrought iron, from its connection with the house drain to a point 
outside the foundation wall, where the galvanized iron conductor 
enters it. The iron pipe connection should end not less than 5 ft. 
above the grade level. When run entirely inside the building, they 
must be of cast or wrought iron, and connected at the roof by means 
of lead or copper pipe wiped to a brass ferrule and caulked into the 
top of the leader, the opening being protected by a wire guard or 
basket. Whenever possible, it is better practice to connect two or 
more branch rain leaders into one main, and place a trap on this 
main, rather than to separately trap each leader. This method 
guards the piping better, for the reason that a trap thus located is 
more certain of maintaining its seal. In the same way, and for the 
same reason, the rain leader may be connected into a yard drain, the 
two lines being protected by one trap. 

Conductors run outside should be one size larger than required 
for a conductor draining the same area when run inside. 

When rain leaders pass through the foundation close to a drive- 
way, or where there is danger of being harmed by passing teams, 
they should be run up in recesses made in the walls, and should not 
pass through the side of the building at a point lower than 12 ft. 
above the grade. 

If there is no sewer in the street on which the building is located, 
its roof drainage should be conducted from the leaders into a pipe 
running below the sidewalk to the street gutter. 

If the street is provided with a public surface sewage system, 
the rain leaders should connect into the surface house drain,- and not 
into the house drainage system. If desired, it is proper to carry the 



RAIN LEADERS 207 

rain leaders outside the house and enter them outside the main trap 
into the house sewer. When so run, they may be of either extra- 
heavy cast-iron or glazed-earthenware pipe, and should be provided 
with traps made accessible by being- located in brick or stone wells 
or manholes. The chief danger that confronts the rain-leader trap 
is the loss of its seal during a long-continued drought. In traps 
having only a %-in. seal or thereabouts, it can be imagined that 
evaporation will not be long in causing its destruction. It would be 
a good idea to construct on all rain leaders, deep seal traps made of 
quarter-bends, in order that a sufficient depth may be obtained. 

The evils of evaporation thus far have been almost impossible 
to remedy, and the only safe course is to take every possible precau- 
tion against it. There is one point that may be advanced in favor 
of connecting the rain leaders inside the cellar wall with the house 
drain, instead of running them outside the cellar wall and connecting 
them into the house sewer. When connected inside, the rain water 
during a storm enters the house drain in sufficient quantity to thor- 
oughly scour and cleanse the piping. 

REGULATION OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION IN 
TENEMENT HOUSES, LODGING HOUSES, ETC. 

Many of the larger cities have found that as the crowded condi- 
tions of the tenement-house districts increase, special provisions must 
be made to meet these conditions in such a manner that the sanitary 
standard of these dwelling places may be kept as high as possible. 
Other conditions besides that of being crowded, such as the unclean- 
liness and ignorance of many of the inmates of these districts, make 
special provisions a necessity. The following requirements with 
others of similar nature, are therefore now demanded by many of our 
large cities in their plumbing ordinances. 

In all such houses, and in factories and workshops as well, there 
should be installed at least one water closet, regardless of the small 
number of occupants, and there should be enough additional water 
closets to allow at least one such fixture for each 15 persons. 

In tenement and lodging houses there should be not less than one 
water closet on each floor, and whenever more than one family occu- 
pies a single floor, there should be at least one additional water closet 
for each two additional families. In such buildings whenever there 



208 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

are more than 15 persons living on the same floor, there should be 
an additional water closet installed on that floor for every 15 addi- 
tional persons, or fractional part of that number. The water-closet 
compartments of tenement and lodging houses, factories and work- 
shops should be made waterproof, with marble, slate, or tile. In 
tenement houses, when the water closet is used by a single family 
only, its base must be not less than 6 in. high, and in all other cases, 
where it is required, it should be as high as the seat. 

Water closet and urinal apartments of tenement and lodging 
houses should in all cases be provided with a window opening into 
the outer air, or into a ventilating shaft not less than 10 sq. ft. in 
area. The partitions separating the toilet from the rest of the floor 
space should either extend to the ceiling, or the apartment be sealed 
over. These partitions should be made air-tight, and the outside 
partition be made to include a window opening into the outer air, 
into a ventilating shaft or into such a lighted area as may be 
approved by the proper officials. The interior partitions of such 
toilet apartment should be dwarfed partitions. The general water- 
closet accommodations for a tenement or lodging house should not 
be allowed to be installed in any cellar, and all such fixtures should be 
open, and free from any inclosing woodwork. Sinks of these houses 
should also be entirely open, and supported on iron legs or brackets, 
without inclosing woodwork of any description. 

If the water pressure is not sufficient to fill the house tank of such 
buildings as tenement and lodging houses, factories and workshops, 
power pumps should be provided. Cesspools should never be per- 
mitted in the case of tenement and lodging houses, and the yards, 
areas, and courts of such buildings should be properly drained into 
the sewer. 



Plate XXXIV 

PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING- 
SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER SUPPLY- 
RANGE BOILERS, ETC. 



w 




Plate 34 
Plumbing For 

Apartment Building 

^Through 

tr Dnn; 





¥ 



Roof- 



t ' 




l^^l 



M r-j ML 



^Kitchen 
Stack 




H ■— . M,' 




& 



3 



33^ 



Tp 



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Bath Room 
Stack — ^_ 



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Wrt< 



-Refrigerator 
Line 




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Z7 




PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING— SYSTEMS OF 
HOT-WATER SUPPLY— RANGE BOILERS, ETC. 

It is not the purpose of this work to take up the consideration 
of either hot- or cold-water supply in a comprehensive manner. There 
are certain things, however, which many of the readers of this book 
will desire to know, and some of these will be briefly given at this 
point. 

The range boiler, to be in keeping with the other plumbing 
fixtures of such work as shown in Plate 34, should be of copper. 
The galvanized boiler has a great advantage in first cost, but the 
copper boiler will generally outlast several of the galvanized. On 
contract work the 30-gallon boiler is much used, but 40 gallons is 
a better size for apartment buildings having individual range boilers. 

For residence work, boilers of larger capacity than 40 gallons 
are often required. For large apartment buildings, office buildings, 
etc., it is far more satisfactory and more economical to provide a 
large tank heated by a special heater. This practice does away with 
the use of a boiler for each apartment. 

A method often followed in the use of the large hot-water tank 
or boiler, is to provide it with steam coils connected to the heating 
system, by means of which it may be heated in the winter time, a 
small heater providing heat for it during the summer time. One of 
the annoyances in this work comes from carelessness or inattention 
to the heater on the part of the attendant. This may be avoided by 
the use of automatic tank regulators, of which there are several 
makes on the market. By means of such an appliance, the tempera- 
ture of the boiler heated either by steam coils or coal-burning heater, 
or by both, may be regulated to a certain temperature. 

The size of main necessary to supply the plumbing fixtures for 

a large apartment building, office building, or other similar building, 

is a problem that is often difficult to solve. The main and branches, 

if properly sized, will allow water to be drawn at any fixture or any 

reasonable number of fixtures, without affecting the free flow of water 

at other fixtures. When pipes of too small size are used, however, the 

211 



212 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



use of water at a single fixture will result in a reduced flow at other 
fixtures. The following will be of service in estimating the necessary 
size of main to perform given amounts of work. In the first place, 
it must be remembered that all fixtures are not in use at any one 
time. The chances are that in an apartment such as shown in Plate 
34, not more than one fixture in the bath room will be used at any 
one time, or more than one fixture in the kitchen. Therefore, in the 
case of apartment buildings, the main will be ample in size if designed 
to supply two ]/ 2 -in. fixture supplies per apartment. Thus, if there 
were 20 apartments, a main having a supplying capacity equal to 40 
^2 -in. pipes would be of sufficient size. The following table shows 
the approximate number of }/2-in. pipes different larger sizes of pipes 
will supply: 



1 in. 


\\ in. 


2 in. 


i\ in. 


3 in - 


4 in. 


Sin. 


6 in. 


5 


l6 


3 2 


50 


IOO 


200 


375 


60O 



Referring to this table, it will be seen that a size between 2 in. 
and 2]/ 2 in. will be required to supply this system. The 2]/ 2 in. would 
be the safer and better size, although 2 in. would no doubt do the 
work satisfactorily. In a great many systems this question could 
not be figured out in this way. For instance, in large toilet rooms 
of hotels, railroad stations, etc., the demand at times -is large and at 
other times small. The main supply lines and branch mains under 
such conditions must be made to supply maximum requirements. 

In supplying hot and cold water to apartment buildings and other 
similar work, each group of fixtures should be supplied by a separate 
line. Thus, each kitchen should have its own supply, and each bath 
room also, each line having a shut-off. This avoids much annoy- 
ance, for if otherwise, the making of repairs in one flat might result 
in the shutting off of the supply in others. On a great deal of high- 
grade work, faucets for the various fixtures are specified to be of 
the Fuller pattern, and on public work often of some self-closing 
pattern. Both Fuller and self-closing work closes very quickly, and 
water, being almost incompressible, forms a very poor cushion to 
receive the shock. The common result in the use of these two styles 
of work is a snapping and jarring of the pipes whenever the faucets 
are closed. Air chambers properly placed will often entirely remedy 
this trouble. Compression faucets, however, are much slower in 



PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING 



213 



closing, and from them none of the above annoyances is experienced. 
Compression work is not only better many times than Fuller and 
self-closing work, but it is less expensive. 

Two systems of supply are in general use: tank pressure and 
street pressure. In the use of range boilers on the direct or street- 
pressure system, supplies are taken directly to the boilers, while in 
the use of the tank system the supply for the boilers is taken direct 
to the tank and from that point delivered to the boilers below. The 
result of the tank method of supply is a uniform pressure, while 
the direct system gives a pressure which varies greatly according to 
the demands that are being made upon it. Boilers used on tank 
systems may usually be of lighter construction than tank boilers, 
although this is not true" in the case of high buildings. The conditions 
in very high buildings are of a special nature, often requiring special 
apparatus. For instance, many office buildings, hotels, etc., in the 
large cities, are of such great height that the pressure on the street 
mains is not sufficient to force water to the upper floors. Under 
such circumstances, for those floors not reached by direct pressure, 
a house tank above, all fixtures must be provided, into which water 
must be pumped. 

Large hot-water boilers are generally of the horizontal pattern, 
hung from the cellar timbers by heavy wrought-iron hangers. 

The following is a table of boilers of standard size and make, 
and their capacities: 



Si 


ze of Boiler 


Capacity 


5f 


t. X 12 in. 30 gals 


5 ' 


' X 13 ' 


1 35 " 


5 ' 


1 X 14 ' 


< 40 " 


5 ' 


' X 16 ' 


' 52 rt 


5 ' 


' X 18 ' 


66 " 


5 ' 


' X 20 ' 


82 " 


5 ' 


' X22' 


' 100 " 


5 ' 


' X24 * 


' 120 " 


4 ' 


' X30 ' 


' 140 " 


6 ' 


' X 24 ' 


f 144 " 


7 ' 


' X24 ' 


' 168 " 



Size of Boiler 


Capacity 


5 ft. X 30 in 


l. 185 gals. 


8 " X 24 * 


192 " 


S'A " X 30 ' 


203 " 


6 " X 30 ' 


225 " 


4 " X36< 


212 " 


5 " X 36 ' 


265 " 


5% " X 36 " 


290 " 


6 'i X 36 ' 


315 " 


7 " X 36 " 


360 " 


8 " X 36 ' 


425 " 



For apartment buildings such as shown in Figs. 34 and 35, the 
construction of circulation work is of very great advantage, as it is 
in almost any system of plumbing. On ordinary work, the hot-water 
supply is run from the hot-water main, and ends at the fixture which 



2i 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it supplies. In circulation work, the supply is run from the main 
also, but it is returned by a circulating or return pipe, into the boiler. 
The result is that in the first case a long line of pipe filled with cold 
water must often have to be drawn off before the water will run hot, 
while in the use of the circulating pipe, the water will run hot almost 
at once. The latter naturally causes much less annoyance to the 
person desiring to draw hot water. The first cost of circulation work 
is greater than that of ordinary work, but if the water is metered 
and paid for by the cubic foot, it will be found that circulation work 
generally figures out a good investment. 

In installing hot- and cold-water supply systems for large build- 
ings, it is usual to supply headers which are connected with the boiler. 
Separate headers are used for the cold supply, hot supply and return. 
The street supply is connected with the cold-water header, and from 
it all cold-water supply lines are taken out. The flow pipe from the 
boiler is connected into the hot-water header, and from the header 
all hot-water supplies are taken off. All return or circulation pipes 
are connected to the return header, and the latter connected to the 
boiler return. Each line of pipe connecting with each header should 
be provided with a stop and waste cock close to the header, a small 
waste connection from each cock being connected into a main line 
of waste, which should empty into some convenient basement fixture. 
Such a waste should not be connected directly into the drainage 
system. Each line of hot- and cold-water supply, and each return 
pipe should be provided with a metal tag, showing what fixture, or 
group of fixtures, and what floor it serves. 

A keyboard, as the above arrangement is called, is a very con- 
venient thing, especially on large work, and is much used in nice 
residences, apartment buildings, office buildings, etc. 

In the event of bursts or other emergencies, the keyboard shows 
at once the valves that control the piping that is to be shut off, and 
often saves damage to the property that would result if the proper 
valve could not be found quickly. The use of the valve waste allows 
the contents of the pipe to drain off into the fixture without dis- 
charging onto the cellar bottom. 

The foregoing, as already stated, is not meant as comprehen- 
sive in any way, but is given simply in a suggestive manner, in 
connection with the general subject of drainage of different classes 
of buildings. 



Plate XXXV 

PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT 
BUILDINGS— FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 







tun 



PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT BUILDINGS 

In Plate 35 are shown two stacks serving the fixtures of a double 
apartment building, one stack for the kitchen fixtures, the other for 
bath-room fixtures. 

The main lines of soil and waste pipes in buildings of this clasf 
may often be run in the mutual wall or partition which divides the 
building at the center. This method centralizes the plumbing, and 
allows the work to be installed at the lowest possible cost of labor 
and material. 

Lack of space prevents showing in this system a line of refriger- 
ator waste, which should always be provided in buildings of this 
class. In the more pretentious apartment buildings a pantry sink is 
often provided for each aoartment and sometimes one or more bed- 
room lavatories. 

Connected with the general plumbing arrangements for apart- 
ment buildings, office buildings, etc., the matter of a filtered water 
supply is now demanding much attention, as also for residences, and 
a brief consideration of the subject will not be out of place at this 
point. 

FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 

There is a constantly growing demand for filtered water supplies 
for city buildings of nearly all classes, the demand increasing as the 
country grows in population, and as a consequence hitherto pure 
supplies of water become polluted. 

There are two forms of filtration, that which clears the water 
of all mechanical impurities, such as rust, sediment, etc., and that 
which not only clarifies the water, but frees it of all germ life and 
renders it free from the danger of producing such diseases as typhoid 
fever. For commercial purposes, for the bath room, etc., the first- 
named form of filtration is sufficient, but for drinking and culinary 
purposes, the latter form should be required. It is a mistaken idea 
that the ordinary filtration plant which filters the supply for an entire 

building in every case purifies the water of disease germs. The water 

217 



218 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

coming through such apparatus is certainly rendered purer as far as 
inorganic matter is concerned, but a filter working under pressure 
cannot deliver water so free from the more dreaded disease germs 
as the filter which operates by the gravity of the water passing 
through it. 

An ideal provision for the supply of filtered water would include 
the installation of a pressure filter on the main supply of the building, 
to clarify and purify the entire supply for the building outside of the 
supply for drinking purposes, and the installation of a gravity filter 
supplying a separate system of piping for drinking and culinary 
purposes. In place of the latter, a form of filter of excellent con- 
struction, described as follows, may be used. The common form of 
the filter referred to is made in different sizes for domestic use, filter- 
ing enough water during the twenty-four hours of the day to provide 
a liberal supply of drinking water. 

The apparatus is briefly as follows : Connection by means of 
block-tin pipe is made to the supply pipe, the water being conveyed 
to a sheet-metal tank hung on the wall, inside of which, and attached 
to a collecting device, are unglazed porcelain tubes filled with bone- 
black or animal charcoal. The water is admitted to the tank through 
a ball cock, which admits it only as fast as drawn. The water, by 
means of its own gravity only, filters through the tubes and their 
contents, and flows into the collector to which the tubes are connected 
by rubber connectors. From the collector the filtered water runs 
down into a glass globe attached to the bottom of the tank, from 
which the water may be drawn as required. 

In most of the large cities will be found companies operating 
this and other domestic filters, who inspect, clean, and sterilize the 
apparatus each month. Upon the periodical attention given to filters 
depends their satisfactory operation. If no attention is given them, 
after a time the tubes clog up and refuse to filter, or if filtration 
continues it is under very unsafe conditions, as all water passing 
through must come in contact with the thick covering of sediment 
and impurities collected on the outside of the tubes. This same style 
of filter in a modified form, can be made to produce any amount of 
pure water desired per day, and is made use of extensively for pro- 
viding the drinking supply of hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and other 
institutions which desire nothing but a pure quality of drinking water. 

On large work, the empty tubes are placed in large copper tanks, 



FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 219 

supplied through a ball cock, and the water after filtering through 
the tubes is conveyed from the collectors into other smaller tanks 
filled with animal charcoal. The double filtration is done entirely by 
gravity, and produces a perfectly pure water. The animal charcoal 
is placed in separate tanks on large work, simply to economize labor 
in cleaning. If the water delivered to filters of this class first passes 
through the house pressure filter, much of the heavier matter in 
suspension, sediment, etc., will be taken out, rendering less frequent 
attention to the gravity filter necessary. 

Pressure filters are of various form and make, using many differ- 
ent materials for the filtering medium. When stone or porcelain of 
a fine quality is used as the filtering medium, a very large percentage 
of the germ impurities may be removed. A very important feature of 
all pressure filters is the matter of frequent cleansing, which is abso- 
lutely essential. Certain makes of pressure filters depend upon large 
masses of bone-black for their filtering material, and experimental 
tests show this to be one of the most effective filtering mediums. 

One form of bone-black filter consists of two separate cylinders 
filled with bone-black, but so connected that by the use of a device 
known as a manipulator, the entire filter may be switched off from the 
house it supplies ; or the water supply may be divided and sent through 
each cylinder equally ; or the water may be sent through each cylinder 
in succession, thus filtering the same water twice; or the water may 
be filtered through either cylinder alone without effecting in any way 
the supply of filtered water to the building supplied. Thus in this fil- 
ter, as in the one previously described, each cylinder may be washed by 
filtered water from the other, and while the entire filter is thus being 
cleaned, the supply to the house is not cut off or affected in any way. 

Experiment has shown that the effectiveness of a filtering 
medium depends directly upon the amount of air space contained 
between its particles. This is the reason that porous stone, porcelain, 
and such materials do such excellent filtering. Sand contains a great 
deal of air also, but it is claimed that bone-black contains nearly 
twice as much as sand, owing to the packing together of the latter. 
The action of filtration depends upon the action of infinite numbers 
of bacteria which live and multiply in the air spaces of the filtering 
medium. These bacteria must have air in order to perform their 
work, and air will not penetrate in sufficient quantity through sand 
to feed them at a depth of more than three or four feet. Air will 



220 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

penetrate much more thoroughly through bone-black, it is claimed, 
and therefore this material is preferable for filter use. 

The bone-black filter described above is cleaned by forcing com- 
pressed air into the mass of bone-black, thus breaking it up into 
particles, after which the flow of filtered water is sent through the 
material, thoroughly cleansing it, and carrying it off into the waste. 

In the use of sand in pressure filters, it is necessary to use a 
coagulating agent, owing to the closeness with which the sand packs. 
For this purpose alum is generally used, and its action is to coagulate 
the sediment and other impurities of the water into such large masses 
that they cannot pass through the sand. While the use of alum is 
not ordinarily harmful, it is not desirable, and it makes the water 
hard, which is undesirable for many manufacturing purposes. 

A great many forms of pressure filters are now made, most of 
them using either sand, bone-black, porcelain or stone as the filtering 
medium, and being provided with a variety of apparatus and methods 
for cleansing. 

There are three methods of providing a storage of filtered water, 
each having advantages of its own. 

Storage by means of the closed overhead tank is mostly used. 
The delivery pipe from filter to tank also answers as the down supply 
for the building, thus effecting a saving in pipe. An air vent at the 
top allows air to pass into and out of the tank, but prevents overflow. 
In this system no impurities can reach the water, which is not true 
of the open-tank system. 

Storage by the open gravity tank is often the most convenient 
to install in houses already provided with an attic tank. 

The open gravity tank is used when the filtered supply must be 
forced into it by a pump. 

The pressure, or compression system is also much used. Only 
pressure tanks should be used for this work, as others will not hold 
air sufficiently well to produce the desired compression. 

The pressure tank is placed close to the filter into which the 
latter delivers filtered water, and from the tank the house supply is 
taken, under pressure. When the tank is filled to its full capacity 
with water under air compression, the compression stops the action 
of the filter until water is drawn. The chief drawback to the use of 
this system is the use of tanks of too small capacity to provide a 
sufficient reserve supply of filtered water. 



Plate XXXVI 



PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS 



R/umbing f*r 

Office Bui/ding 



iiS2s 






>^S^Js u 



e7°2jef 









Sf°re 



o^/^j^e 



<£ijzk. 



<Siiz2z 



Gfailet 




PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS 

The plumbing for office buildings is naturally varied, but consists 
largely of lines of lavatories and toilet rooms, both public and private, 
successive floors often being duplicates. The continuous vent prin- 
ciple may often be applied to lines of fixtures in office buildings to 
the benefit of the plumbing system and with a saving over common 
methods in both material and labor. In office buildings and other 
buildings containing many stories, the following limitations in the 
size of soil-pipe stacks should be observed. 

Regardless of the small number of fixtures that may enter it, a 
soil-pipe stack in any building between five and twelve stories in 
height should not be less than 5 in. in diameter, and in buildings of 
more than twelve stories, this size should never be less than 6 in. 

For sizes of main vent lines, the following regulations should 
be adhered to : 

Main vent lines for water closets on three or more floors should 
not be less than 3 in. in diameter ; a main vent line for fixtures other 
than water closets on less than seven floors should be not less than 
2 in. ; for less than nine stories 3-in. main vent ; for nine to sixteen 
stories, 4-in. main vent; for sixteen to twenty-two stories, 5-in. main 
vent; for twenty-two stories and up, 6-in. main vent should be used. 
These requirements result in centralizing the plumbing, as it would 
become an expensive matter to run large stacks through many stories 
simply to provide for a few fixtures. 

Whenever water closets are located on different floors, as in 
Plate 36, they should each be vented, with the exception of the top 
water closet. When two water closets, however, are located close 
together on the same floor, it is not essential to vent both fixtures 
if they waste into the same Y branch. It is sufficient to prevent 
siphonage, to vent only the water closet that is the farther from the 
stack. When two water closets discharge into a double fitting, a 
mutual vent may be taken from a hub near the junction of the two 
branches. Fittings of this kind are easily obtained, and it will be 
seen that the one vent taken from this point vents both the fixtures. 

223 



224 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Many plumbing ordinances call for the venting of all water 
closets except a water closet above which no other fixtures enter. 
As a matter of fact, it is very difficult to siphon a water-closet trap 
even partially, by the discharge of other fixtures than water closets. 
Therefore, it does not seem necessary to vent any water closet which 
is the only fixture of its kind on the stack, provided the water closet 
is within 3 ft. of the stack. For the same reason it does not seem 
necessary to vent either of two water closets discharging into a double 
fitting, and located on the same floor close to the stack, if other water 
closets do not discharge into the same stack. Judgment must be used 
in these instances, however, for batteries of fixtures such as lava- 
tories might be located on the same stack as a single water closet, 
and be able to throw enough waste into the stack to endanger the 
water closet. 

If it could be depended upon that people of high intelligence 
were always to install the plumbing system, and also that in every 
case they could be depended upon to install the work honestly, there 
are many conditions constantly arising under which a safe piece of 
work could be constructed without the necessity of venting, whereas 
venting under the circumstances is required by ordinance. Because 
dependence of this nature cannot be made, iron-clad rules must be 
adopted to make the attainment of perfect work a surety. 



Plate XXXVII 



PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS- 
CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE IN THE UN- 
VENTED PLUMBING SYSTEM 



Plumbing f°r 

Rub//c T°//e/- /?oo/77J 



77§ aJ2Z Ve. ?& / 



V<Z7Zf 



| -— ^/ •— 1 w f— I w 



S 






i i 

i i 



\< ^ 



"> 



.o. 



jz± — — - r\ 



>\ 



A \ 



/ iV 



— x JLL. \ v / 







<&jre<s2Zj&.2T* g?2zjl<z 




PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

The public toilet room of to-day is a far more sanitary institu- 
tion than that of a few years ago. This is due not to one thing only, 
but to several. 

The methods and practices of installing such work are superior 
to those of times past; the manufacturer has improved the construc- 
tion and quality of fixtures in a wonderful manner; and a plentiful 
supply of light and thorough ventilation are provided. 

The floor of the public toilet room, formerly of wood, which soon 
became reeking with filth, is now of tile or waterproof material, and 
adds beauty to the room. To provide for the thorough washing out 
of the room, one or more floor drains should be installed in each 
such room. For this purpose, an excellent device is that shown in 
Fig. B, Plate 16. It can be flushed thoroughly with hot water when 
desired, and thus kept in a clean condition. An important feature 
of the sanitary public toilet room is the thorough ventilation of the 
room. In order to succeed in providing perfect ventilation, means 
must be provided for bringing in a supply of fresh air if foul air is 
to be drawn out. In Fig. B of Plate 37 is shown a method much 
employed in providing this ventilation. It will be seen that the foul- 
air duct is run at the bottom of the room, each fixture stall or com- 
partment being connected to it by means of a small register opening 
into the flue. 

This flue should be connected with a flue constantly heated, or 
may be provided at its outer end with an exhaust fan. As the foul 
air is thus exhausted, fresh air enters the room at various points 
near the ceiling, through registers opening into a fresh-air duct. 

If sufficient fresh air does not enter through the flue by natural 

means, a fan may be employed to force in a sufficient supply. Fig. C 

shows in section the arrangement of flues, from which it will be 

seen that they are generally run in a space behind the partition, 

against which the fixtures are set. Very often the tanks for the 

water closets and urinals are also concealed in this space, as shown 

in Plate 38. In the case of large toilet rooms, these flues may be 

continued for any desired distance, and on different sides of the room. 

227 



228 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

It will be found desirable to allow openings in both foul- and 
fresh-air ducts at intervals during their course outside of the fixture- 
stall openings. In this way a perfect exhaust of foul air and entrance 
of fresh air may be maintained, and the air of the room kept as nearly 
pure as possible for the air of a room of this character to be kept. 
In rooms of this nature, a change of air once in fifteen minutes should 
be provided for. In proportioning the area of these ducts, about 24 
sq. in. of duct area should ordinarily be allowed for each urinal, water 
closet, and slop sink, and about one half this amount for such fixtures 
as lavatories, and the effective area of ventilation through the regis- 
ters should be of the respective amount for each fixture named. It is 
better practice to raise all partitions of fixture compartments off the 
floor in public toilet room work, as there is then no opportunity for the 
collection of dirt and filth about the bases. If located in such a place 
that outside light cannot enter the toilet room, it should be lighted 
as thoroughly as possible from a light shaft or skylight, through 
windows opening into a lighted room, or by artificial means. Water- 
closet compartments are generally about 7 ft. in height above the 
floor, and urinal stalls about 4 ft. and 6 or 8 in. The best practice 
in the construction of toilet rooms to be used by the public, such as to 
be found in hotels, schools, factories, etc., calls for the use of the 
individual water closet. The range water closet as constructed and 
provided for to-day, is certainly far superior to the old style con- 
struction, but the fact remains that in its use there is greater danger 
of infection, and it is more difficult to keep the air of the room pure 
when ranges are used, as excreta must remain in the bowl until the 
automatic flush acts, whereas in the use of individual tank water 
closets this is carried away immediately after the fixture has been 
used. If the range is to be used, however, a large foul-air flue should 
be provided at the end of the range, and entered into a heated flue 
capable of producing a strong draught on the foul-air flue. 

It is quite customary to provide public comfort stations and toilet 
rooms with drinking fountains placed in close proximity to other 
fixtures. It would seem preferable and more cleanly to place this 
fixture outside of the toilet room, where it will not be in the midst 
of foul and impure odors. 

The only sanitary drinking fountain is that in which no drinking 
cup is required. 

Drinking fountains of this type are now much used, the water 



CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE 229 

issuing through bubbling cups which may be adjusted to give any- 
desired amount of water. The user simply places his mouth over 
the stream coming from the bubbling cup, his mouth coming in con- 
tact with nothing but the water. The ordinary fountain with its 
common drinking cup is unsanitary and a successful agent for the 
spreading of many diseases. These fountains are made singly in 
pedestal form, and in batteries of any number of bubbling cups, the 
latter being especially desirable for school use. 

In the installation of long lines of lavatories, each lavatory should 
be provided with its own trap, and separately vented. The use of a 
common waste pipe extending the whole length of a long battery 
of lavatories to a trap at the end is to be considered very poor prac- 
tice. It leaves a long line of foul waste pipe to send its odors into 
the room through each waste connection into it. 

In order to economize space, it often becomes necessary to locate 
a double battery of lavatories at the center of the public toilet room, a 
matter that is usually difficult owing to the impossibility usually, of 
running the waste and vent pipes concealed, as is desirable in work 
of this kind. Fig. A shows a method of accomplishing this result, 
which is considered further in connection with Plate 38. 

CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE IN THE UNVENTED 
PLUMBING SYSTEM 

Under the subject of venting, taken up under Plate 11, it was 
seen that the trap seal may be lost by siphonage, the latter action 
following the formation in the drainage system of a vacuum or par- 
tial vacuum. Some of the ways in which this vacuum may be formed 
in the drainage system that is not provided with a system of trap 
vents, are considered in the following. 

Siphonage of a trap may be caused by the outflow of the waste 
from its own fixture, the momentum of which is sometimes sufficient 
to suck out a large part of the seal. When two fixture wastes branch 
into the same pipe, the passage of the waste from one fixture may 
fill the pipe sufficiently to produce a vacuum behind the column of 
waste, and thus siphon out the seal of the other trap. 

A fixture having a long line of horizontal waste is often en- 
dangered by a partial temporary stoppage in the horizontal part of 
the waste. When this stoppage is relieved, the waste filling the pipe 



2 3 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

may flow off so strongly as to produce a vacuum behind it and cause 
siphonage. This is true even of the water closet. The passage of 
a heavy volume of waste down a vertical stack may produce a partial 
vacuum at the entrance into the stack of another fixture, causing the 
trap of the latter to lose its seal. Fixtures at the foot of a stack are 
more open to the danger of trap siphonage than those nearer the top 
of the stack. As the lower floors are reached, more waste fills the 
stack than at points farther up, and as this heavy volume of waste 
strikes the horizontal line it is naturally impeded, and more nearly 
fills the pipe, with a consequent greater danger of producing a vacuum 
followed by the siphonage of trap seals. 

These conditions that have been described are the cause of many 
of the rules regulating the construction of plumbing, such as the 
prohibition of quarter-bends on the drainage system, for instance, 
the use of which would impede the outflow of waste far more than 
the Y branch and eighth-bend form of connection between vertical 
and horizontal lines. 



Plate XXXVIII 

PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 



R/afe 33. 



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Rlumbing for 

Rublic T^ilef- R&^ms 




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fol J/ezar 



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PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

In Fig. A of Plate 37 and Fig. E of Plate 38 are shown two 
views, front and end, of double batteries of lavatories installed at the 
center of the public toilet room, or in such location that no partition 
may be used for concealing the waste and vent piping. 

Each individual lavatory is separately trapped and provided with 
a continuous vent, this work showing the principle of continuous 
venting applied somewhat differently than in Plates 26, 27, and 28, 
though with equal effectiveness. In Fig. A, Plate 37, it is intended 
to show the main horizontal waste pipe run above the floor, while in 
Fig. E, Plate 38, the main is run below the floor, and branch wastes 
connected from each fixture. 

Either method that is most desirable may be used. The chief 
feature of this work is the concealment of the main vent line and 
branch vents inside a box formed by the marble backs of the two 
lines of fixtures, and a piece of marble set on top. The marble box 
runs the entire length of the line, which may rise vertically to run to 
a vertical vent stack at any intermediate point, as in Fig. A, or at 
either end. The lavatories in both illustrations are of porcelain or 
porcelain-lined ware, and supported on cast-iron standards. In Fig. 
A, the marble backs run down to the floor, allowing all but the traps 
to be concealed in the space between the two marble back slabs, while 
in the case of Fig. E the space below the lavatories is open, and a 
part of the work is in sight. 

The use of continuous vents is of great advantage in this in- 
stance, as it not only allows the work to be done in a more sanitary 
manner, more neatly and compactly than by ordinary methods, but 
at far less cost of labor and material. This last advantage is gained 
in the use of continuous vents on nearly all work where fixtures 
back up to each other in pairs, whether under such circumstances 
as these or on opposite sides of a partition. 

Under ordinary circumstances, it is not difficult to so construct 
the toilet room that much of the work may be concealed in open 
spaces behind partitions. 

233 



234 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In Fig. C, for instance, the flush valves for a line of water closets 
may be thus concealed, and as in Fig. D, the flush tanks, whether 
high or low, and the horizontal soil pipe may both be concealed. 

Concealment of working parts, such as flush valves and tanks, 
with their chains and pulls, is often very desirable, especially in school 
and factory work, where there is danger of damage due to mischiev- 
ous tampering with such devices. When so concealed, however, the 
working parts should be made accessible for repairs and inspection. 

The use of the circuit system of venting is often of much advan- 
tage in public toilet rooms, especially in connection with lines of water 
closets. It is applied in the case of Fig. A, and might be applied to 
equal advantage in Fig. D. 

The choice of water closets for public toilet-room work is almost 
unlimited, if the matter of expense is not to be considered. Fig. D 
shows a very desirable form in many respects. It is so constructed 
that it fits squarely into the corner made by the partition, and may 
be made much more firm and secure against accidental blows by 
being bolted both to the floor and to the partition. It has a rear 
outlet which allows the soil pipe to be run above the floor. This 
method of running the soil pipe and connecting the water closets is 
of special value in fire-proof buildings and for public buildings of 
various kinds. The soil pipe is supported on standards, the entire 
work presenting a very neat appearance. In Fig. B a very con- 
venient form of water closet is shown, provided with a large local 
vent connection, which is a part of the bowl itself. This local vent 
connection gives a much more finished appearance to the fixture than 
a connection made with metal pipe. The connection is designed to 
project into a foul-air flue located back of the partition against which 
the water closets are set. 

When water closets of public toilet rooms are flushed by indi- 
vidual flush tanks, the capacity of the latter should not be less than 
for other uses, that is, not less than of 5 gallons capacity. 

When supplied from an automatic flush tank, however, the latter 
should be of such capacity that each water closet on the line shall 
be flushed by at least four gallons of water at each discharge of 
the tank. 

All lip urinals, water closets, and slop sinks used in public toilet 
rooms should be of the flushing-rim type, this form of fixture being 
flushed and cleansed more thoroughly than others. 



Plate XXXIX 

PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT- 
TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY 



F- > /umbing f°r 

Ga/~h E-sfob/ishmenf- 










C<=>jzcrefe 

<S?TJ.7ZZ72Z27ig 



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PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT 

Systems of plumbing such as that shown in Plate 39 are to be 
found in Turkish-bath establishments, clubs, Y. M. C. A. buildings, 
and in other like institutions. Such a system usually includes a num- 
ber of shower-bath compartments, other compartments for tub baths, 
swimming pool, lines of lavatories, and ample toilet arrangements. 

A very important feature in the bath establishment is the liberal 
use of floor drains, for a great deal of water naturally falls upon 
the floors; and in addition, abundant opportunity must be provided 
for flushing and thoroughly cleansing. Owing to impurities washed 
from the skin, the bath rooms of an establishment of this kind may 
become exceedingly filthy unless constant attention is given them. 
For this reason many such bath rooms are supplied with flushing- 
rim floor drains provided with hot- and cold-water connections, which 
are very effectual in keeping such drains in a sanitary condition. 

All floors and walls of bath establishments should be of tile or 
waterproof material. The walls and ceilings should never be cov- 
ered with any material that may absorb moisture and odors. 

Generally the waste from a line of shower baths is carried off 
in a gutter at the rear of the stalls, the stall floors being graded so 
that all water will flow into the gutter. 

The gutter may be formed in the floor itself or of slate or marble 
set into the floor for this purpose, or it may be of cast iron. The 
gutter should be graded to its outlet. The outlet should connect into 
a cast or wrought-iron waste line, and be provided with a trap, the 
size of which should be determined by the number of shower baths 
which are served, the size generally being from 2 to 4 in. 

This trap should be provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts. 

The plunge or swimming pool should waste through a 4-in. trap, 
provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts of the same size as the trap. 
The bottom of the pool should be graded toward the outlet end. The 
swimming pool should be provided with ladders reaching down into 
it, and a brass hand rail running completely around it. 

The water of the swimming pool, when constantly in use, should 
be changed at least once in seven hours. 

237 



238 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Although not seen in Plate 39, the swimming pool should be 
provided with an overflow. The plunge bath is now to be found 
occasionally in the basement of fine residences, and the use of shower 
apparatus of extensive nature has become a common feature of high- 
grade and well-appointed bath rooms. In some sections, where the 
water supply is not remarkably clear, the filtering of the water used 
in the bath establishment will be found to add much to its luxuries. 
As in the case of other public toilet rooms, it sometimes becomes 
necessary to provide a storage of water to be used at such times as 
the regular supply is inadequate. 

Concerning the use of tanks, the following remarks may be of 
value : 

TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY 

Formerly the attic tank, which supplied the house with water 
under tank pressure, was of large size, holding several hundred gal- 
lons. To-day, however, much smaller tanks are used for this purpose. 
They are supplied with a ball cock, thus allowing water to enter the 
tank at the same rate that it is drawn out. 

The storage tank, although it may be used for the same pur- 
pose and in the same way as the common attic tank, is generally 
used as an auxiliary to the pressure system of supply, and may be 
of any size, from a capacity of a few hundred gallons to many thou- 
sands. These tanks should be of wood or iron, or of wood lined 
with heavy tinned sheet copper. 

The best materials for wooden tanks are cypress, white and 
yellow pine, cypress being the most satisfactory. 

The storage tank should be supported on heavy iron beams 
which will not sag under the immense weight of the tank and its 
contents. 

In many cases the storage tank must be placed above the point 
that the pressure supply can reach. Its supply must then be pumped 
into it. In high buildings it often happens that during the day time, 
when the mains are being heavily drawn on, the street pressure is 
not sufficient to force water into the tank, but during the night it is 
sufficient. A supply can thus be stored at night for use during the 
day time on those floors not reached by the city pressure. 

Tanks should always be covered in order to keep out dust, foul 
gases, and odors. 



^MMH 




Plate XL 



PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND 
STABLES— FACTORY PLUMBING 



Plumbing f<=>r 
Engine /-/<=> use 



P/af-e 40. 







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Factory Plumbing 



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PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND STABLES 

In Plate 40 is shown the elevation of a system of plumbing for 
an engine house. The same style of work may also be used in 
private stables. 

In addition to the connections shown, there are usually toilet 
accommodations for the hostler, in the case of the stable, and bath 
rooms and toilet fixtures for the engine house. Floor drains should 
be placed in the apparatus room, wash rooms, hose tower, etc. The 
construction and connection of stall sinks is shown in detail by 
Plate 10. Two adjacent stall sinks may be served by the same trap. 

The plumbing system for a stable should be provided with the 
same sanitary features as for the house system. A separate main 
drain should be provided for it to the street sewer, which should not 
be connected with the house drain of any building. 

Even under the most faA^orable conditions, more or less solid 
matter from the stalls will find its way into the drain, and the fol- 
lowing provision is of advantage. All wastes from stables, includ- 
ing waste from wash rooms, manure pits, etc., may, before entering 
the street sewer, be discharged into a catch basin located under- 
ground outside of the stable. The catch basin may be constructed 
of brick or of cast iron, and should be water-tight, with a tight cover, 
and properly vented. The outlet from the catch basin may be con- 
nected to the stable sewer or street sewer. 



FACTORY PLUMBING 

The sanitary arrangements of well-appointed factories of the 

present day are of as high an excellence as for schools and other 

institutions. There is no reason why they should not be of a high 

standard, but it is true that, until within a comparatively few years, 

they have often been given scant attention. 

The ventilation of the toilet room should be on the same scale 

241 



242 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

and as thorough as that of other public toilet rooms. In Fig. B is 
shown a floor plan of part of a factory toilet room. 

As will be seen, it is thoroughly lighted from outside windows 
and also by inside windows, the latter admitting light from the out- 
side to the wash room. The floor should be constructed of water- 
proofed concrete, and provided with a floor drain, as the thorough 
flushing out of such rooms is very essential. 

A sill cock, conveniently located, will be found convenient in sup- 
plying water for this purpose. 

In Fig. D is shown the common method of venting such a line 
of water closets and the connection of the main horizontal vent line 
into the main vent stack. The use of the circuit-vent system, as 
shown in Plate 29, is advantageous in such work, and results in 
reducing the cost of installation. 

In buildings of factory construction, horizontal waste and soil 
lines may be run on the ceiling of the floor below, thus making such 
lines, with their cleanouts, accessible from the floor below. It may 
be stated that, in using the circuit and loop vents, it is desirable to 
run the horizontal soil line as close to the bases of the water closets 
as possible. The line of water closets shown is provided with local 
vents. Ventilation by means of fresh and foul-air flues and fans, as 
described in Plate 37, is preferable for large toilet rooms to the 
system shown in Fig. D, as it is more thorough, purifying the air of 
the entire room more effectually. The wash sink for factory use is 
an important matter. 

In Fig. B a double line of wash sinks is shown, and in Fig. C 
an end view of the same. The sinks shown are of enameled cast 
iron, cast in sections, thus allowing any length of sink to be used. 
They are supported on cast-iron standards, and made in a variety 
of forms. The waste may be arranged as in Fig. C, which shows a 
short waste connection above the floor, leading into a trap which 
serves both lines, the horizontal waste being of cast or wrought iron 
and hung on the ceiling below. In factory and school plumbing sys- 
tems it is well to have as little piping exposed as possible, owing to 
the rough and careless usage given it. 

The size of the waste from the factory sink should not be less 
than 2 in., and 3 in. for sinks of great length. The trap should be 
vented with 2-in. cast- or wrought-iron pipe, which is carried verti- 
cally to the ceiling, and then horizontally into the nearest vent stack. 



Plate XLI 



AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES, ETC. 



f=>/o/-<z 4/. 
Automatic F/ ashing for 
tfonh Sch<=°/s , Factories, etc. 

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AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES, ETC. 

It is often desirable to provide groups of such fixtures as water 
closets and urinals with automatic flushing, such provision being 
specially valuable in school and factory use, and often in public work, 
such as railway-station toilet rooms, public comfort stations, etc. 
In the use of any toilet room for the accommodation of the public, 
the fixtures are bound to be used by many people who are ignorant 
or careless in the matter of flushing fixtures after having used them. 
In the matter of urinals, especially, the flushing of them is often left 
to the attention of an attendant who may be careless in perform- 
ing this duty. In school houses particularly, small children using 
the fixtures cannot always be expected to understand the necessity 
of flushing water closets. Owing to these circumstances and many 
others, the periodic and automatic flushing- of fixtures is of much 
advantage in maintaining wholesome toilet rooms. 

In Fig. A, Plate 41, is shown a sectional view of a form of 
automatic flush tank, the action of which is as follows: 

The admission of water to the automatic tank is not controlled 
by ball cock, as the supply must be constant. The interval between 
flushes depends upon the amount of water flowing into the tank, 
which is regulated by the valve G. The principal working parts of 
the flushing device consist of a circular vessel D, which is supported 
by several wires attached to the outer circular compartment B. The 
vessel D, is filled with water, into which a tube C, projects. Out- 
side of C is a hollow cylinder H, closed at its upper end, and sup- 
plied with holes at the bottom, through which the water may enter. 
As the water rises in the tank, it fills the space between the tubs C 
and the cylinder H, the air in the tube and at the top of the cylinder 
being confined between the rising level of the water and the water 
seal of D. This air becomes more and more compressed as the water 
rises, until the pressure exerted is sufficient to force the water out 
of D. This produces a vacuum at the bottom of the tube., and the 
compression being relieved, atmospheric pressure on the surface of 

24s 



246 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the water in the tank will force it into the tube C, and into the flush 
pipe A, which conveys it to the different fixtures to be flushed. 

This siphonic action continues until the water in the tank drops 
to such a point that air is admitted through the holes M, when the 
action stops, the tank again beginning to fill for the next flush. 

Fig. B shows the general plan of connections between the tank 
and the fixtures. 

The principles governing the construction, locating, etc., of stor- 
age tanks also apply to automatic flush tanks, and are to be found 
under Plate 39. Successive flushes should not be more than seven 
minutes apart. A great objection to automatic flushing is that when- 
ever water closets or urinals are used, the excreta entering them must 
remain in the fixture, giving off impure odors into the toilet room, 
until the next flush takes place. For this reason it is necessary to 
provide each water closet and each urinal of an automatically flushed 
system with strong-acting local vents. 

The automatic flush tank should be of sufficient size to discharge 
into each fixture at least four gallons of water at each flush. The 
copper lining for the automatic flush tank, and for all other flush 
tanks, should not be less than 10 ounces. This weight is ordinarily 
used for tank linings, but a heavier grade of metal is preferable. 

Another disadvantage in the use of the automatic flush tank is 
the large amount of water used, which is a matter of" importance if 
a metered public supply is to be used, owing to cost of water. In 
many instances however, institutions, factories, and hotels have a 
large private supply, the use of which is not restricted. When used 
in connection with many systems, the periodic flushing must go on 
without interruption, but in the case of school buildings the supply 
to the tank may be shut off when school is not in session. In con- 
nection with plumbing systems automatically flushed, water closets 
and urinals in private toilet rooms and bath rooms may not be con- 
nected to the automatic flush if it is desirable to keep down the cost 
of water used. 

Fig. C, Plate 41, shows a form of automatically flushed urinal, 
of excellent design. 

It is made of porcelain, or porcelain-lined material, is free from 
exposed metal parts which may corrode, and is well adapted to public 
toilet rooms. 

A cross section of a urinal of this type may be seen in Fig. E, 



AUTOMATIC FLUSHING 247 

Plate 43, from which it will be observed that a large body of water 
always stands in the fixture, the tank after completing its flush 
always providing this body of water, which stands in the urinal until 
the succeeding flush. A double trap is provided on the outlet of this 
urinal, one trap being above the other. When the tank flushes, the 
air in the upper trap becomes rarefied — that is, partially exhausted — 
sufficiently to set in action a strong siphon which draws the entire 
contents of the urinal out of the fixture and into the waste. When 
the water in the tank drops to a certain level, air is admitted to the 
pipe running from the tank to the crown of the upper trap, the 
admission of this air to the trap breaking the siphon. 

When the siphon breaks, the water at that time in the urinal, 
remains there until the next flush. No water is wasted in starting 
this siphon, every drop of water passing out of the tank being used 
in cleansing the fixture. A horizontal perforated pipe at the back 
of the urinal, and connected with the vertical flush pipe from the 
tank, thoroughly flushes and cleanses the back of the urinal. This 
same action is applied in the flushing of water-closet ranges. Both 
range and urinal can be installed of any number of compartments 
and supplied with a tank of size to correspond. 

Slop sinks, in addition to water closets and urinals, may be 
automatically flushed. 

There is a sink for factory use, made of slate, or wood lined 
with sheet copper, and of any desired length, which is comparatively 
self-cleansing. 

The sink is made with an outer and inner compartment, the 
latter running through the center of the sink, with space for wash- 
ing on either side. There is also a narrow space at the end of the 
inner compartment, between it and the outer compartment, in which 
a standing overflow is located, connected into the waste. A line of 
supply pipe runs above and over the center of the sink, and is pro- 
vided with sprays which throw the water down into the center 
compartment, from which it overflows into the main body of the 
sink. Thus the first washing may be done in the outer compart- 
ment, with clean water always in the inner compartment for use in 
face washing. 

In factories employing a high grade, of help, the line or battery 
of lavatories shown in Fig. A of Plate 37, and Fig. E of Plate 38 
is much in use. 



. 



Plate XLII 

THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES 



P/ate 4Z. 



C/se °f 

Flushing l/a/rzs 

0ujyaQr <s>rer /2<=>rr 





THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES 

Flush valves are used in place of tanks in the flushing of 
water closets, urinals, and slop sinks. They may be placed directly 
back of and above the fixtures which they serve, or may be con- 
cealed behind partitions, as shown in Figs. C and D of Plate 42. 

Flush valves may be operated either under direct pressure, as 
in Fig. B, or under tank pressure, as in Fig. A. The operation of 
flush valves under tank pressure is generally the more satisfactory 
method, as there is always a storage of water in the event of an 
interruption of the public supply, and the pressure is more positive 
and reliable. The tank pressure is always uniform, while direct 
pressure is extremely variable, which is an undesirable feature in 
not only this work, but in all branches of supply work. When a 
storage tank is used, the height of the tank above the highest flush 
valve should not be less than 10 ft. if good service is to be expected. 

Flush valves may be obtained that are to be connected with the 
supply pipe coming directly through the wall back of the valve, or 
for either right- or left-hand side connection. 

The operation of most flush valves is similar in its general 
features. This action is as follows : When the handle is released 
after flushing, the valve is closed automatically by a jet of water 
discharged from the pressure side of the valve into and through a 
by-pass to the valve chamber beyond the piston head, which it 
gradually forces onto its seat. This by-pass is one of the sources 
of trouble, as any sand or other solid substance will clog up the 
passage and stop the passage of the water jet into the valve cham- 
ber. Some valves are provided with a device for holding back any 
such harmful solids. 

It is difficult to state definitely proper sizes of pipes and connec- 
tions for flush valves, as this information, given by manufacturers 
of different forms of flush valves, varies greatly, depending upon the 
different forms and construction of valves and upon the pressures 
that they are designed to work under. Some manufacturers adver- 
tise flush valves which work under pressures between 10 and 200 

251 



252 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

pounds, and are not affected in their operation by a variation between 
these two points. 

Other makes of flush valves, however, are made in different 
styles, for different pressures. Owing to inability to give absolutely 
definite data which will cover all makes of flush valves, the follow- 
ing information is given in general, and may or may not be correct 
in the case of certain makes. Generally a pressure of 8 to 10 pounds 
is required for the operation of flush valves under direct pressure, 
and supply pipes serving buildings in which flush valves are used 
should be of such sizes and so installed that the drawing of water at 
fixtures will not reduce the pressure at any flush valve below the 
amount named. 

In general, the size of service pipe for flush valves is from 134 
to 1^ in., when operated by direct pressure, for valves up to four 
in number, and these sizes should be increased for larger numbers. 

When working under tank pressure, a main line of supply pipe 
is run down to the several floors, branches being taken to the dif- 
ferent fixtures to be supplied. 

A 1^2-in. main is ample for from one to four fixtures. If there 
is more than this number of fixtures, it is well in ordinary build- 
ings to carry a 2-in. supply down from the tank 10 or 15 ft., reduc- 
ing to iy 2 in. for the rest of the distance, and if the building is ten 
stories or more in height, the lower floors may be. reduced to ij4 
and 1 in. 

Flush valves for urinal use are often smaller in size than those 
designed for water-closet use, and have smaller supply connections. 
For low pressures a i^-in. connection to the flush valve is used, and 
for ordinary pressures i 1 /^ in. is the general size. 

The storage tank for use in connection with flush valves should 
have a capacity, whenever possible, of about 6 gallons per fixture. 
This capacity is the requirement when a small number of flush valves 
are installed. On large systems, where a large number of valves are 
used, it is not necessary to provide such liberal storage, as the amount 
named per fixture allows for two successive flushes, and in large 
work it is almost impossible that all, or anywhere near all, of the 
fixtures served will be flushed at the same time. Therefore the size 
of the tank may be reduced from the capacity named, as may be cor- 
rect for each separate system. A liberal capacity of storage is always 
desirable, however. 



Plate XLIII 

URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 



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URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 

Owing to the nature of the waste that enters the urinal, it is 
the most difficult of all toilet-room fixtures to keep in a clean and 
sanitary condition. 

The foul air noticed in many public toilet rooms that are not 
properly provided for and attended to, is due in a large measure to 
foul urinals, this cause no doubt, being greater than the use of 
water closets. The local vent may be very effectively applied to the 
urinal, and results in lessening the nuisance mentioned very percep- 
tibly. In Fig. A, Plate 43, is shown a method of applying the local 
vent to the single urinal or to groups of them when of the lip pattern. 
The piping for the urinal is concealed behind the back urinal slab 
or behind a partition. From the house side of the urinal trap the 
local vent connection is made, it being connected directly into a main 
horizontal local vent line, which should be carried into a heated flue 
under the same conditions as prescribed for the local vent serving a 
line of water closets. The main should be proportioned in size so 
that at any point its area shall be equal to the combined areas of 
the branch vents that have been connected into it. A strong draft 
in the heated flue will result not only in drawing the foul odors out 
of the connections, but from the fixture itself, and from the room. 
It is very necessary that a heated flue should be used, and for the 
ventilation of large toilet rooms a special flue should be used and 
kept heated the year round. The connection of the local vent does 
not interfere with the connection of the trap vent, which is, of course, 
taken off the other side of the trap, and may be connected into a 
main vent line above the floor, the trap entering a main line of waste 
either above or below the floor. In Fig. D is shown a system of 
local venting applied to another form of urinal. These vents should 
also enter a heated flue. In order to better show the remaining con- 
nections, the trap vents have been omitted in Fig. D. The local ven .- 
ing of urinal traps has the disadvantage of producing on the seals 
a higher rate of evaporation, but when used in public toilet rooms 
the urinals are more or less constantly in use, and the loss of seal 

255 



256 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

thereby continually renewed. In the case of a urinal seldom used, 
it would be unwise for this reason, to apply the local vent. 

As to the form in which the urinal is made there is a great 
variety of choice. 

One of the most common forms is the lip urinal, shown in 
Fig. A, which is supported on a slate or marble back by means of- 
bolts, and receives its flush through a urinal cock by direct pressure 
or from a tank located above it, which may or may not be of auto- 
matic action. In Plate 44 is shown a line of these fixtures, from 
which it will be seen that such a line may be provided with con- 
tinuous vents to advantage. 

The various forms of slate urinals are also very common. Figs. 
B and C show two of these forms, the latter showing a double line 
with single dividing partition. In the urinal of Fig. B, the waste, 
striking the two drip slabs, is washed down into a gutter, formed 
in the concrete floor, by means of water discharged from two per- 
porated flush pipes running lengthwise. This flush keeps the slabs 
wet at all times, all liquids being washed away as they fall upon the 
slab. More commonly in use than this type of urinal, however, is 
that shown in Fig. C, which consists of a vertical drip slab with 
perforated flush pipe, the waste liquids being washed into the cement 
gutter or into a cast-iron gutter. The ends of such gutters should 
be provided with metal connections and cast- or wrought-iron trap 
of not less than 2 in. diameter connected into the waste. All urinals 
should be provided with slate or marble floor slabs, and any wall 
surface that is exposed and within 5 ft. of a urinal should be con- 
structed of Portland cement or other impervious material. The 
urinal gutter should also be constructed of like material. 

In connection with the cast-iron urinal gutter mentioned above, 
it should be added that to be strictly sanitary the gutter should be 
lined with enamel, in order to prevent any corrosion due to the 
presence of the urine in the waste. All lip urinals should be of the 
flushing-rim pattern, in order that all surfaces of the urinal may be 
as thoroughly scoured and cleansed by the flush as possible. In 
Fig. D is shown a set of three porcelain urinals, flushed by means 
of an automatic flush tank. 

The porcelain urinal is a massive fixture and especially adapted 
to the service of public toilet rooms and comfort stations, which de- 
mand the most perfect sanitary conditions possible, usually without 



URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 257 

question of expense. The flush pipe is concealed in the fixture itself, 
the flush entering each urinal through a spreader, which throws it 
upon every part of the exposed surfaces, these surfaces being so 
formed as to allow the flush to cleanse them to the best advantage. 
An excellent feature of this form of urinal is that no metal parts or 
trimmings are exposed, and thus there is nothing which may corrode 
by contact with the urine. The addition of the local vent completes 
in this fixture the highest sanitary excellence to be found in urinal 
construction. The porcelain trough urinal shown in elevation in 
Fig. C, Plate 41, and in section in Fig. E, Plate 43, has been fully 
described under the former plate, and is to be considered an excellent 
fixture for public toilet-room work. 

The pedestal urinal of porcelain, is one of the latest types of 
urinal to appear on the market, and is also of much excellence. An- 
other recent urinal of high-grade construction is the siphon-jet urinal, 
supplied from a tank. In this fixture, a heavy body of water is at 
all times maintained. When the tank is operated, the flush enters 
through the flushing rim and through a jet, in the same manner as 
in" the siphon-jet water closet. This action results in siphoning the 
entire body of water out of the fixture, which is of the lip pattern. 

Flushing valves may be applied to the urinal to advantage, as 
shown in Plate 42. These valves may be concealed, as in Fig. C, 
or exposed, as in Figs. A and B. 

Automatic flushing of urinals, as illustrated and considered in 
Plate 41, is along the line of good practice. When the flushing of 
this fixture is left to the user of it, this important matter is often 
neglected, the result being a foul-smelling toilet room. Automatic 
flushing does away with much of the nuisance arising from this 
cause. 

In Plate 44 a line of urinals is shown in connection with the 
Durham system. The drainage of this system is entirely of wrought- 
iron or steel pipe, upon which the action of the acids in the urine 
passing from the urinals is especially harmful. This action is far 
less serious on cast-iron pipe, and presents additional argument in 
favor of the use of the latter material for drainage purposes. 

As elsewhere intimated, the public toilet room should be pro- 
vided with the advantage of good ventilation and with an abundant 
supply of light. Without these advantages the urinal becomes a foul 
and unsanitary fixture. 



Plate XLIV 

THE DURHAM SYSTEM— THE DESTRUC- 
TION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 



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THE DURHAM SYSTEM 

There is no difference in the principles of construction between 
the Durham system and the plumbing system as ordinarily con- 
structed. The only difference in the Durham system is that it is 
constructed entirely of wrought-iron threaded pipe and cast-iron 
fittings. 

On the Durham system all joints are made with screw threads, 
no caulked lead joints being used. The Durham system is shown in 
Plate 44, with a detail in section, of the style of cast-iron fitting used 
on Durham. Fittings of other than recessed construction should not 
be used on any part of the drainage system. On vent work in con- 
nection with the Durham drainage system, galvanized, cast, or mal- 
leable steam and water fittings of ordinary make may be used. The 
purpose in using recessed fittings is that the alignment of the inside 
surface of drainage pipe and fittings may be as even as possible, with 
no ends of pipes that screw into fittings presenting shoulders against 
which solid matter flowing in the waste may find lodgment. 

The use of cast-iron pipe and fittings is free from this trouble, 
for the hubs are sufficiently recessed to allow an even inside align- 
ment. In the use of common steam and water fittings on cast-iron 
drainage work, there being no recesses in such fittings, the ends of 
all pipes entering fittings present shoulders against which lint and 
other materials in the waste may collect. It may be stated, however, 
that this trouble is experienced in a greater degree in connection 
with Durham work than in cast-iron soil piping. For this reason, 
special care should be taken in cutting wrought-iron pipe for drainage 
use, and all burs on the ends of such pipes should be reamed out. 
The weights of wrought-iron pipe for drainage purposes should not 
be less than the following: 

Diameter of Pipe Weight per Foot Diameter of Pipe Weight per Foot 

iy 2 in 2.68 lbs. 5 in 14.5 lbs. 



2 

3 
3/2 

4 

aY2 " 12.34 



3.61 " 6 " 18.76 

574 " 7 " 23.27 

7.54 " 8 " 28.18 

9 " 9 " 337 

10.66 " 10 " 40.06 



261 



262 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

All fittings used on Durham work and on all vent work should 
be galvanized. Short nipples, in which the unthreaded part is less 
than iV 2 in. long, should be made of weight and thickness known 
as " extra heavy " or " extra strong." This provision is to guard 
against crushing and splitting, which is liable to happen in the use 
of nipples made of ordinary pipe. 

Joints on the Durham system should be made up with red or 
white lead, applied to the male part of the thread. When thus applied 
there is less opportunity for the lead to squeeze through into the 
interior of the pipe and form an obstruction. 

Care should be taken that all such obstructions are removed when 
the joint is made. When wrought-iron or brass pipe is connected 
into cast-iron pipe, the connection may be made by a caulked lead 
joint or by a screw joint. 

Connections between lead and wrought-iron pipes may be made 
by means of a brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the cast iron, 
the lead connection to the ferrule being made by means of a wiped 
joint. 

An advantage claimed for the Durham system by its friends, is 
that a screw joint, being as strong as the pipe is, there are no weak 
points in a line of such pipe, whereas it would be folly to claim any 
such thing as this regarding a line of cast-iron pipe with its caulked 
joints. This argument is followed by the claim that the above being 
true as regards a vertical line of wrought-iron pipe, so long as it 
rests at its base on a firm foundation, there is no necessity for side 
supports, and that it may be carried thus, through the height of the 
tallest buildings. This would not seem plausible, for the reason that 
any line of drainage pipe, whether vertical or horizontal, of cast or 
wrought iron, should be given lateral support in order that it may 
be rigid and not subject to any lateral movement. Even though the 
screw joint is a strong one, lateral motion in a long line of pipe will 
often result in snapping the pipe at one of the screw joints or in 
breaking a fitting. Furthermore, if a vertical line of cast-iron drain- 
age pipe be given the support that it should receive, it will not sag 
or settle so that the caulked joints will be forced out of the hubs, 
a claim that is made against the use of cast-iron pipe. It is true that 
in the construction of the plumbing system the proper supporting of 
heavy piping is not given the attention that it should receive, damage 
to caulked joints often resulting thereby. It is also true that lines of 






THE DURHAM SYSTEM 263 

cast-iron pipe properly provided for, suffer no more from broken joints 
than wrought-iron lines, and are free from certain serious evils which 
wrought iron is subject to. The Durham system, which has received 
its name from the inventor of certain patents on the application of 
wrought-iron pipes to drainage systems, is now extensively used in 
high city buildings, mainly because of the advantages thus claimed 
for the system, and it is a question whether such extensive use would 
have resulted if the cast-iron system had been properly handled. It 
has often been placed in high buildings with not much more pro- 
vision being made for supporting its great weight than is made in 
the system of a private residence, and it is mainly due to this cause 
that cast iron has been somewhat superseded in very large work. 
There are many uses to which iron piping is put, in which the use 
of wrought iron for drainage purposes is preferable. Greenhouse 
work is an important instance. In this work, where there is much 
expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature, the caulked 
joint will not stand nearly so well as the screw joint. This is also 
many times true in the case of factory work, where constant and 
severe vibration tends to start the caulked joints of cast-iron piping. 

A very strong argument against the use of the Durham system 
is the fact that wrought-iron pipe has a much shorter term of life 
than cast-iron pipe, particularly when buried underground. This fact 
is testified to very strongly by the demand made by all plumbing 
ordinances dealing with the subject of the Durham system, that when- 
ever pipes connected with the system are to be run underground, 
such pipes shall be of cast iron. This feature appears in the illus- 
tration in Plate 44. Regarding the life of wrought-iron pipe, it may 
be stated that under certain unfavorable conditions, plain wrought- 
iron piping that has been installed not longer than eight to ten years 
has had to be renewed, owing to its deterioration. 

Steel pipe is much used in place of wrought iron, many times 
indeed, under the impression that it is wrought iron. 

This material is far shorter lived than even wrought iron, and 
is entirely unsuited to the plumbing system, which should be expected 
to render service almost as long as the house in which it is placed. 

The only way in which either wrought-iron or steel pipe can be 
used with any degree of safety is by coating it with a non-corrosive 
substance such as galvanizing, which is demanded by all ordinances 
on plumbing. Even when so protected, there will be thin places in 



264 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the coating, and whenever the pipe is cut, the coating at the ends 
of the pipe is more or less damaged, so that the steel or wrought 
iron is left bare. At such points corrosion gets in its work. A scale 
is formed by this galvanic action, over the exposed surface, which in 
time exposes a fresh surface to be acted upon, the scale forming 
again, and again falling off. Thus the action continues until a hole 
has been eaten entirely through the pipe. The action of gases and 
acids in the sewage, and in the vapors and steam that rise from the 
sewage, tends to increase this corrosive action in a marked degree. 
Cast iron, however, is much more free from such corrosion, for it 
simply rusts over on any exposed surface, but does not scale, the rust 
actually forming a sort of protection for the piping. 

An important agent in the corrosion of wrought iron and steel 
is the condensation of vapors on the sides of the pipe in the form of 
drops of water, which quickly oxidize any exposed surface which 
they come in contact with. 

Mild steel is especially objectionable, as it is so filled with im- 
purities that it rapidly decays wherever they exist. 

The vent system is open to the injurious effects of corrosion to an 
even greater extent than the drainage system, for the latter is often 
covered with a slime which acts as a protection against such action. 

While the screw joint is the strong arguing point in favor of the 
Durham system, it is right at this point that the most serious trouble 
may be expected, both on the drainage and on the vent lines. Wher- 
ever a thread is cut, the material of the pipe is entirely exposed, and 
whenever threads project out from the joint, which often happens, 
there is not only abundant opportunity for corrosive action to take 
place, but there is a large surface to act upon, because of its being 
threaded, and owing to the depth of the thread there is less thick- 
ness of metal to be eaten through, before the pipe is punctured. In 
the case of mild steel, especially, it takes only a few years to accom- 
plish such a result under the above conditions. 

It is a very easy matter for most users to be imposed upon in 
deciding from the appearance of pipe, whether it is wrought iron or 
steel. A very large part of the pipe now turned out is of steel. 

The following shows some of the differences between iron and 
steel. Iron pipe looks rough and has a heavy scale, while the scale 
on steel pipe is much lighter and in the form of small bubbles, with 
a smooth and rather white surface beneath. 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 265 

Steel pipe, when spread out, seldom breaks, while iron pipe breaks 
easily. A break in the former shows a very fine grain, while that 
of the latter is much coarser. 

Steel pipe is not hard and its threads tear rather than break. 
Dies that are used on steel pipe may also be used on wrought-iron 
pipe, but blunt dies that work satisfactorily on wrought-iron pipe will 
tear the softer threads of steel pipe. 

A few remarks concerning the length of life of wrought- and 
cast-iron pipes under actual working conditions, and the conditions 
which act to protect or destroy them, may be of interest. A case 
is on record of the complete decay of an entire underground wrought- 
iron gas-supply system in eleven years, the cause being in this case 
traced entirely to external conditions and not to the gas which the 
pipes were carrying. In the same town experience shows that 
wrought-iron water-service pipes have a life generally of about seven 
years. Cast-iron pipes have been known to fail through softening 
of the metal after a period of use underground of from thirty-five to 
fifty years. This action, however, is very rare, and the failure of 
cast-iron pipes, when laid underground, may generally be traced 
to defects in manufacture. 

A few years ago in the city of Los Angeles, the cast-iron water 
mains were uncovered in over three hundred places, and the pipes, 
which had been laid nearly thirty years previous, were found to be 
in almost perfect condition. 

It was found that the coating of asphalt had almost entirely dis- 
appeared, that in sandy soil the bare pipe had not rusted, and that 
in other moist soil it had rusted somewhat but was almost uninjured. 
In conclusion, it would seem advisable to use cast-iron pipe for drain- 
age purposes wherever possible, and that when impossible or im- 
practicable, nothing but wrought-iron pipe heavily galvanized should 
be used. Steel pipe should never be used. 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 

In recent years great damage has been done to all kinds of 
underground piping by the action of electric currents, chiefly from 
electric railway systems. This damaging action affects water mains 
and service pipes, gas mains and service pipes, the lead sheathing of 



266 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

underground telephone and telegraph lines, and in fact any line 
of underground piping, regardless of the nature of the metal of which 
it is made. In the action of the ordinary galvanic battery, such as 
is used for house bells, two metallic plates are used, one of these gen- 
erally being zinc, and the other some metal which will not oxidize 
so readily as zinc. 

When two such plates are immersed in a saline solution, and a 
circuit completed by connecting a wire from one plate to the other, 
it is a well-known fact that the more easily oxidized plate will be 
acted upon chemically and decomposed. m It is for the reason that 
this chemical action in time destroys the zinc plate that battery zincs 
must be replaced in batteries at longer or shorter intervals. This 
destruction of a metal by means of the passage of an electric current, 
is known as electrolysis, and is an action which is constantly going 
on underground, in the vicinity of trolley tracks. 

It is the practice in the operation of most electric-railway systems 
to carry the electric current to the end of the line through large 
wires, and to carry it back to the dynamos through the rails. As 
the rails are not separated or insulated from the surrounding earth 
in any way, there is nothing to prevent a part of the current from 
escaping from the rail and passing into and through another near-by 
conductor. An electric current will always take the path that is 
easiest for it; that is, the path that has the least resistance. When- 
ever an electric current passes a point where it may take either of 
two or more paths, it will always divide, a part of it passing through 
each path that is open to it, and the path that presents the least amount 
of resistance to its passage will receive the largest part of the current. 
If the rails of the trolley system were welded together and therefore 
one continuous conductor, the action of electrolysis would be much 
less prevalent. As it is, however, the rails must be bonded, and at 
these joints the greatest resistance is to be met. Even though two 
rails might have their ends pressed together as closely as possible, 
there would still be at this joint a resistance to the passage of the 
current many times greater than the resistance it would meet at any 
intermediate points in the rail. Even when the rails are connected 
together by means of copper wire attached to the rails in the most 
approved manner, the resistance at the points of connection will be 
very great. It is at such points of resistance as these that the electric 
current will jump from the rail to some other conductor which offers 



DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 267 

less resistance, and this easier path for the current is often supplied 
by a near-by line of underground piping. If the current would only 
continue in the pipe, and not leave it, the pipe would not be damaged, 
any more than the rail is damaged by having the current pass 
through it. 

It is at the points where the electric current jumps from the 
pipe to the rail again, or to some other conductor, that the damage 
comes, and also at fittings. The current in passing from the pipe, 
through the joint and into a fitting, does specially harmful work. It 
is not at the point where the current enters the pipe, or at interme- 
diate points along the pipe that the pipe is destroyed, but at those 
points where the current leaves it. This point is not generally 
understood. 

While all kinds of piping are subject to the action of electrolysis, 
and valves as well, cast iron is probably less harmfully acted upon 
than the other metals, although there are many instances where cast- 
iron water mains have been very seriously damaged. 

There are, however, several instances recorded, where serious 
damage was done to wrought-iron and lead pipes, while the cast-iron 
mains, which were apparently subject to the same conditions, were 
practically unharmed. An explanation of this result is not clear, 
although it has been suggested that in the casting of the iron pipes 
in sand moulds, a sort of silicious coating forms over the pipe, which 
acts as a protection to it. The plumber is naturally much interested 
in the methods that may be employed to prevent the action of elec- 
trolysis. It may truthfully be said that there is really no practicable 
remedy which may be applied at an expense which is not prohibitory. 
The owners of electric-railway systems may often considerably re- 
duce the cause of damage, but that is not the part of the question 
in which the plumber is interested. If the pipe that is affected can 
be surrounded by some suitable non-conductor, the trouble may be 
remedied, but it is a most difficult matter to provide a suitable non- 
conductor. Many materials that above ground might be used as 
non-conductors, cannot be used underground for the same purpose, 
as they absorb moisture and become conductors. The use of as- 
phaltum, resin, wax, and other substances has been tried, but they 
are not generally practicable, as a coating of such material is liable 
to crack and fall off, and in addition is too expensive to apply. In 
some cases, about the only thing that can be done is to provide for 



268 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

taking out sections of pipe, that are being constantly destroyed, in 
as easy a manner as possible. Sometimes it is well to encase the pipe 
in another pipe, in which case the current will often act on the outer 
pipe only. 

The action of electrolysis has caused the plumber an endless 
amount of annoyance in a great many instances, as one pipe after 
another has often been destroyed, and the cause many times being 
unknown, the plumber has been blamed for results that are prac- 
tically beyond his power to remedy. 

In addition, the gas and water and telephone and telegraph 
companies have suffered enormous losses. In the case of the gas 
and water companies, especially the former, the loss has not been 
entirely on the piping, but loss of great extent has occurred in the 
waste of gas or water carried in the pipes. 

The action of electrolysis is not confined alone in its destructive 
action to underground piping. The steel frames of large city build- 
ings, the steel framework of elevated railways, and much other 
construction work of a similar nature has also been very seriously 
impaired from the same cause. 

The great losses due to the action of electrolysis, and the danger 
attending the results of such action, have become of such importance 
that a very large amount of money has been offered by a leading 
scientific institution for a practicable remedy that will overcome its 
effects. 



Plate XLV 

CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT 
USE OF LEAD 



Plate 45. 
Construction °f 
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CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT USE OF LEAD 

The present tendency of plumbing construction is toward the 
use of other metals than lead, cast and wrought iron, brass and 
copper being the materials commonly used; whereas in former times 
the entire drainage system was of lead, including the soil piping. 
This practice has reached such an extent that many plumbing ordi- 
nances restrict the use of lead to short branches of soil and waste 
pipes, closet bends and traps. 

Plate 45 shows several illustrations of this class of work, Figs. 
A and B showing work in connection with the Durham system, while 
the three remaining illustrations show brass and wrought-iron work 
in connection with main lines of cast-iron pipe. It is entirely feasible 
to construct the entire plumbing system without the use of any lead 
whatever, and numerous buildings ma) r be found which are so pro- 
vided. Figs. A and B show two methods of installing water-closet 
connections without the use of lead. In the latter, the long-turn 
elbow takes the place of the lead bend. The connections in Fig. A 
are very satisfactory for water-closet work, giving a quick discharge 
of the waste into the main. Very often in connection with a line of 
water closets, the connections of Fig. A may be used without the 
vent, and the end of the horizontal main extended in the form of 
the circuit or loop vent. In such work the horizontal line may be 
brought considerably closer to the fixtures than in Fig. A. 

In Fig. C the lavatory is served by a brass trap and vented by 
a continuous vent. When such a fixture is located at a distance 
from a main line of vent, this method is very convenient, as the 
vent can be carried to the ceiling above, or under the floor, and hori- 
zontally to the desired point. 

Fig. D shows the manner in which a fixture connected in the 

ordinary way may be installed without the use of lead. In Fig. E 

a group of urinals and lavatories is connected in a manner which 

is very satisfactory and now much used. The main horizontal waste 

line is generally run above the floor, and directly above it and above 

the highest fixture, the main horizontal vent is run. Back of each 

271 



272 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

fixture the main waste and vent lines are connected by a i^-in. 
vertical pipe, and into these vertical lines the fixture wastes are con- 
nected by a horizontal trap outlet, into a fitting of the T-Y pattern. 
This provides a continuous vent for each fixture, and effects a saving 
in cost of installation over the ordinary methods. 

The waste connections into the horizontal waste are ordinarily 
made through T-Y fittings, but it is preferable to use a Y branch 
and eighth bend, the waste passing off by this means more smoothly 
than through the T-Y fitting. In the use of wrought-iron pipe on 
the drainage system, the work may often be put in more compactly 
than with cast iron, owing to the fact that fittings and hubs take up 
less room. This will appear from Fig. A. In Figs. A and B the 
brass floor flange for the water closet is screwed into the cast-iron 
elbow. Fig. F, Plate 17, shows a detail of a water-closet connection 
when the soil pipe is of wrought-iron and no lead bend is used. All 
cast-iron fittings used in connection with wrought-iron drainage pipes 
should be recessed fittings, whether the entire system is of Durham 
construction or only branch wastes, as in Fig. C. 

When the Durham system is used, and it is desired to connect 
lead pipe into the wrought-iron pipe, it may be done by means of a 
brass soldering nipple or brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the 
wrought iron, as shown in connection with the water closets in the 
basement, in Plate 44. 

Brass ferrules should be of extra heavy cast brass, not less than 
4 in. in length and 2^4, 3/^, and 4^ in. in diameter. 

The weights of brass ferrules should not be less than the fol- 
lowing : 

Diameter Weight 

2^4 in 1 lb. 

3K " iH lbs. 

4^ " 2y 2 " 

Soldering nipples should be of brass pipe, iron-pipe size, or of 
extra-heavy cast brass. Cast-brass soldering nipples should not be 
less than the following in weight: 

Diameter Weight 

i]/ 2 in 8 oz. 

2 " 14 " 

2~y 2 " 1 lb. 6 oz. 

3 " 2 lbs. 

4 " 3 " 8 " 



CONSTRUCTION OF WORK 273 

On several of the foregoing plates, illustrations are shown of 
work constructed without the use of lead. For instance, on Plate 
43, Fig. D shows a line of porcelain urinals constructed in this 
manner. 

For urinal work, cast iron and brass are preferable to wrought- 
iron, steel, and lead pipe, for certain acids and gases in the urine 
which enters the connections of this fixture act destructively on the 
three last-named materials, and this action is often very rapid. 

There is a considerable amount of work installed in which the 
only lead used is the lead bend. The bath-room connections of Fig. 
E, Plate 21, are an example of this style of work, in the use of spe- 
cial fittings. 

Fig. G, Plate 22, shows the same class of work performed by the 
use of common fittings. 

Figs. B and C of Plate 26, and the illustrations of Plates 27 and 
28, show plumbing construction provided with continuous vents, in 
which brass traps may be used, thus avoiding the use of lead. These 
illustrations show clearly that continuous vent work favors the use 
of other materials than lead. Plate 36 shows an entire plumbing 
system in which the only lead material used is the lead water-closet 
bends, and, if desired, other materials may be used in place of these. 

Fig. E, Plate 38, shows connections of wrought iron for a line 
of lavatories which give satisfaction and make a very neat appear- 
ance. Thus it will be seen that lead has but a small place in the 
construction of present-day plumbing in the larger cities, and on 
large work especially. 

The displacing of lead in plumbing construction by such mate- 
rials as cast and wrought iron and brass is attended by results both 
favorable and unfavorable, some of which may be seen from the 
following. The great objection to the use of lead, as stated else- 
where, is that when run of considerable length it will sag and form 
traps, owing to the softness of the metal. This objection is cer- 
tainly not encountered in the use of wrought- and cast-iron and 
brass piping. 

There are many places where lead will give better service, how- 
ever, than material of a stiffer nature. For instance, lead will stand 
sudden strains and concussions better than cast- or wrought-iron or 
brass pipes. For this reason it is always advisable to use lead on 
the suction pipes of pumps, water lifts, etc. On such work as this, 



274 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

lead pipe does not develop the leaks that other materials do. In 
connection with the use of lead for suction pipes, it may be stated 
that in the event of a leak on the suction pipe it is far easier to 
locate it if the pipe is of lead than if of wrought iron. 

The reason for this is that the sound made by the passage of 
air through the leak telephones along the length of the wrought- 
iron pipe to a much greater extent than through lead pipe, the result 
being that it is difficult ofttimes to locate the exact place where the 
defect exists, while in lead pipe the noise can be heard only indis- 
tinctly at distant points. 

The objections to the employment of wrought iron and steel on 
the drainage and vent systems are considered thoroughly under the 
subject of the Durham system. 

It may be stated that while certain disadvantages exist in con- 
nection with the use of lead, wrought-iron, and steel pipes for drain- 
age and vent purposes, there is almost nothing that can be said 
against the use of cast iron and brass for the same purposes. 



Plate XLVI 

THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES 
LOCATED BELOW SEWER LEVEL— AU- 
TOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS— AUTO- 
MATIC SUMP TANKS 



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Automatic 

Sump TanH ^cisecit 




THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES LOCATED 
BELOW SEWER LEVEL— AUTOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS 
—AUTOMATIC SUMP TANKS 

In the larger cities there are many instances where plumbing- 
fixtures are located below the level of the street sewer, in which case 
it is obviously impossible to discharge the waste coming from them, 
into the sewer by gravity. Such conditions must be dealt with in 
the sub-basement floors of numerous tall city buildings, underground 
toilet rooms or public-comfort stations, and in underground or sub- 
way passenger stations. 

Briefly stated, the method of handling such sewage is to convey 
it by gravity through the ordinary soil and waste lines into a receiv- 
ing tank, from which it is pumped or ejected by other means, into 
the house sewer of the gravity system. 

In addition to fixture drainage, the matter of subsoil drainage, 
which is often a very considerable matter in underground work, must 
be taken care of. 

There are several methods of raising the low-level sewage into 
the gravity house drain. 

It may be done by pumps of different kinds, or by means of 
automatic sewage lifts, several of which are now on the market, and 
operated by compressed air or steam. 

A sectional view of such a sewage lift or ejector is to be seen 
in Plate 46. 

When pumps are to be used, the low-level sewage is discharged 
into a receiving tank located below the level of the lowest fixtures, 
each soil or waste inlet to the tank being trapped, and the trap sup- 
plied with a vent, which may be connected into any main vent of the 
gravity system. 

A tank of this kind should be large enough to hold the sewage 
collecting during several hours, if the discharge from it is automatic, 
and if not, it should be large enough to hold the sewage entering it 
during twenty-four hours. 

As nearly above the tank as possible, a centrifugal pump is set, 

which is operated by an electric motor. A float inside the tank is 

arranged to rise with the sewage in the tank, and when it has filled 

277 



278 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

to a certain point, the rising of the float locks an electric switch 
which controls the motor. The motor is thus set in action, operat- 
ing the pump, and the latter quickly draws out the contents of the 
tank and forces them into the house sewer of the gravity system. 
The suction of the pump should reach down to the bottom of the 
tank in order to draw out all the heavy matter. To the tank a fresh- 
air inlet should be connected, not only to serve the ordinary pur- 
pose of the fresh-air inlet, but to relieve the tank while it is filling 
and to aid the pump by admitting air when the latter is in action. 
The pump may also be set on the same level as the tank, and, in fact, 
works to better advantage when so set, as no primer is necessary, 
and the apparatus is thereby considerably simplified. Piston pumps 
are also used in raising sewage from low levels. 

The centrifugal form of pump is best adapted to large volumes 
of sewage which are not to be raised very high, while piston pumps 
will raise smaller amounts through much greater distances. 

In the use of piston pumps, however, it is necessary to prevent 
anything but clear sewage from entering, as the coarser and gritty 
matter works destructively on the working parts of the pump. 

The great objection to the use of pumps in disposing of low- 
level sewage is the cost of operating. 

The use of automatic sewage ejectors, however, is accompanied 
with small running expenses, and they have many advantages over 
the use of pumps, chief among which is the fact that there are almost 
no working parts to get out of order, and very few auxiliary devices, 
which are expensive to operate, as in the case of electric motors used 
on pumps. 

In Plate 46 is shown such an apparatus, operating automatically, 
and designed especially for this kind of work. 

There are several other makes that may be obtained, all work- 
ing on more or less similar principles. Compressed air has proved 
the most satisfactory motive power, but very often these machines 
are provided with appliances by means of which steam or water may 
be used to operate them in the event of an interruption in the com- 
pressed-air apparatus. 

The action of the automatic sewage lift is the following: Sew- 
age from the levels below the crown of the sewer is conducted, 
through various lines of soil and waste pipe, into a sewage tank or 
receiver. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 279 

Inside the receiver an open bucket rests upon the surface of 
the sewage, rising as the latter rises. When it has risen to a cer- 
tain point, the rod to which it is connected, and which passes through 
a stuffing box at the top of the tank, by means of a lever attachment 
trips a valve on the compressed-air supply pipe, the same action clos- 
ing a valve on the vent pipe of the apparatus. Compressed air is at 
once admitted upon the surface of the sewage in the receiver, and is 
sufficient in pressure to raise this sewage through the outlet and into 
the house sewer of the gravity system. 

A pressure of 2 pounds should be provided for each foot in height 
through which the sewage is to be raised. 

When the pressure of the compressed air is exerted on the sew- 
age, it closes the check valve on the inlet to the receiver, and opens 
the check valve on the outlet, and as the closing of the vent pipe 
closes the only other path for the sewage, it must pass out through 
the proper outlet. 

As the water in the receiver falls, the bucket, which is weighted 
with the water which it holds, follows with it, and when it reaches 
a point near the bottom, the lever attachment shuts the valve which 
controls the compressed-air supply, and opens the vent valve, thus 
venting the air confined in the receiver. The ejector is now ready 
for another operation. It will be seen that the ejector acts as a trap, 
and therefore the use of a main trap is unnecessary in connection 
with it. 

The receiver of the ejector should be vented, such vent usually 
being connected into some convenient main vent on the gravity- 
drainage system. Air compressors and a storage tank for com- 
pressed air are necessary features of a plant of this kind. 

The valves on the inlet and outlet pipes of the ejector are for 
use in the event that it is desired to disconnect any one of several 
sewage lifts that are connected together on the same system. The 
automatic sewage lift is generally installed in a brick or iron well 
and made accessible in case of inspection and repairs. In handling 
the low-level sewage of some of the immense hotels of the large 
cities, apparatus must be used which is able to discharge many thou- 
sands of gallons of sewage each hour. 

This may be accomplished by means of ejectors of the type shown 
in Plate 46, by connecting several of the lifts together. 

When so connected, combination lifts working under either com- 



2 8o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

pressed air or steam are generally used, in order that in the event 
of a breakdown on one source of motive power, the other may at 
once be made use of. It will readily be seen that no chances can be 
taken in providing against a mishap which may totally disable an 
entire system of this kind, for it is a question of handling a great 
many thousands of gallons each hour, and when this cannot be done, 
and the sewage constantly accumulates at this high rate, the situa- 
tion becomes very serious. 

When several ejectors are connected together, the main sewage 
inlet divides the sewage between the different ejectors, and each one 
discharges into a main. 

Some of the advantages of this method of disposal are the fol- 
lowing: No pumping apparatus, with working parts to get out of 
repair, is necessary; there are practically no working parts in the 
lift to get out of order; the receiving tank, in which the work of the 
apparatus is chiefly performed, has no finished surfaces or parts on 
which the coarser matter in the sewage may act injuriously; and the 
tank acts as a trap to protect the building against the entrance of 
gases from the sewer. 

In addition to the matter of caring for fixture drainage, sub- 
soil drainage, floor drainage, etc., must also be provided for. This 
drainage is usually disposed of by other apparatus than that used in 
connection with polluted drainage, the apparatus being known as the 
automatic sump tank, an illustration of which appears in Plate 46. 
This tank is installed in a water-tight catch basin or pit, constructed 
of brick or iron. Subsoil, floor drainage, and any other clear-water 
drainage that must be taken care of, should enter the pit through 
inlets provided with check valves, as shown, all drains being trapped 
in the usual manner. The tank should be air-tight and vented, gen- 
erally into some convenient main vent in the gravity system. The 
action of the automatic sump tank is similar to that of the automatic 
sewage lift already described. 

When the bucket is raised by the drainage in the tank to the 
right height, it opens the compressed-air supply valve and closes the 
vent pipe, the admission of compressed air forcing the contents out 
of the tank and into the main gravity line. 

A wise provision in the installation of automatic sewage lifts on 
large work, is that they shall be provided in pairs, each being large 
enough to hold the drainage accumulating from the fixtures during 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 



281 



.. - 



an hour. The two ejectors should be so connected that they will 
operate alternately. When water closets discharge into sewage 
ejectors, the vent from the apparatus should not be less than 4 in. 
in diameter, and when other fixtures only are connected into it, the 
vent should be of the same size as the main waste pipe serving such 
fixtures. 

There is another form of ejector sometimes used, which dis- 
charges low-level sewage into the house sewer of the regular sys- 
tem, also by means of compressed air. 

The compression of the air in this apparatus, however, is accom- 
plished by the head of the sewage in the gravity system discharged 
into a large tank. Water from the public water supply may also 
operate this system, and this water afterward be used in supplying 
fixtures on the floors below the sewer level. This system, while not 
particularly well known, has the advantage of disposing of the sew- 
age without apparatus which entails expense in installing and in 
operating. 

Of the several different methods mentioned or described for 
raising low-level sewage, the automatic sewage lift, operating by 
compressed air, with steam as an auxiliary, is, in general, the most 
desirable. 

In order to determine the size of lift needed for any given plant, 
the amount of waste entering it must be known, and to estimate this 
it is necessary to know the number and character of all plumbing 
fixtures below the sewer level, the number of floor drains, and the 
character and size of all other drains and apparatus from which 
waste of any description is discharged. 

It is also necessary to know the size of the gravity house sewer, 
and the kind of power that is to operate the lift, with full data con- 
cerning pressure, etc., relating to such motive power. 

In addition to its use in connection with underground floors of 
high buildings and underground public toilet rooms, there are sev- 
eral other uses to which the automatic sewage lift may be put. 

It often happens that small villages or hamlets, situated in level 
country, which has no advantages for disposing of public sewage by 
gravity, are in a perplexing situation. The sewage lift may be used 
to advantage under such conditions. 

By installing it in a pit underground, as low as desired, enough 
pitch can be obtained to allow the discharge of the public sewer into 



282 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

it. The lift may discharge the sewage into a septic tank at a higher 
level, and this tank in turn onto filter beds, the latter delivering the 
clear sewage which results, into underground distributing pipes. 
More concerning the septic tank, filter beds, and underground dis- 
tribution will be found under following plates. 

If other sources of motive power are not available, the lift may- 
be operated by water. 

The sewage lift is used in many marine plumbing systems also. 
The apparatus is located below all fixtures, which discharge into it 
by gravity, the lift discharging the sewage into the sea. 

This is an important application, as the disposal of sewage of 
large steamships, as well as other vessels, is a matter of importance 
and difficulty. 







Plate XLVII 
COUNTRY PLUMBING— WATER SUPPLY 



COUNTRY PLUMBING 

The subject of country plumbing differs in many respects from 
the plumbing of cities and towns. The difference arises principally 
because of the fact that usually the plumbing system installed in the 
country cannot enter a system of public sewers, and a water supply 
cannot be secured from any public system of supply. These condi- 
tions make it necessary to study each individual plumbing system, 
and to provide for it as conditions require. 

Another feature that also influences the installation of the plumb- 
ing system, is the absence of any regulation or inspection of plumbing 
work. As a consequence, many houses in the country, of ordinary 
style, are provided with an unvented plumbing system. This, how- 
ever, in many cases need not be a serious matter, as on small systems 
special provision may often be made for making the work as safe as 
is possible to make it when the traps are not vented. 

Plate 47 shows such a plumbing system. 

In many cases one stack serves all plumbing fixtures of the 
house, including usually the three bath-room fixtures, kitchen sink, 
and, possibly, laundry tubs. The use of S-traps on such work is poor 
practice, as this form of trap is easily siphoned, unless provided with 
a vent. The use of drum traps and approved forms of non-siphonable 
traps is much better practice. As far as possible, long, horizontal 
runs of lead waste pipe should be avoided in an unvented plumbing 
system, as siphonage often results from the backing up of waste in 
these long runs. The connections from bath-room fixtures into the 
stack can usually be arranged as shown in Plate 47, with the lavatory 
waste entering above the water-closet connection. If the lavatory 
connection is below the closet connection, the liability of siphonage 
of the lavatory trap will be greater, owing to the passage of a 
heavy volume of waste from the water closet past the lavatory waste 
opening. 

The passage of the stack through the roof is a great safeguard 

for any system of plumbing, especially in the case of an unvented 

system. When the country plumbing system empties into a cesspool 

or septic tank, a vent should be run from such receptacle. The septic 

285 



286 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

tank or cesspool, stands in the same relation to the country plumbing 
system that the public sewer system does to the city plumbing system. 

If the cesspool or sewer is not vented, gases will generate and 
produce a pressure that will force the seal of the main trap. 

The soil vent or roof connection relieves this pressure, which is 
a duty of much importance, for if not thus relieved, the fixture traps 
will also be forced, and poisonous gases from the cesspool thus find 
entrance into the house. The use or non-use of the main trap does 
not appear to be a matter of so much importance in connection with 
the country plumbing system as with the city system. One reason 
for this is that in the country districts there is no danger of con- 
taminating the surrounding air by venting the cesspool, whereas in 
the city the venting of the sewer through the soil vents of a build- 
ing only a few stories in height may throw foul odors and gases into 
the windows of a high building next to it. 

There is one reason why the main trap is of much value to many 
country systems. There being no regulation by ordinance, or inspec- 
tion of plumbing, much poor work is installed that remains undiscov- 
ered, which a test would quickly reveal ; and, moreover, standard soil 
pipe is generally used, which is easily split in handling, and which has 
more defects than extra-heavy pipe. Consequently, sewer gas would 
have a much greater opportunity to find its way through defective 
pipe and joints than in work of a higher grade, an'd the main trap 
will prevent much of this trouble, by preventing the entrance into the 
plumbing system of the house, of gases from the cesspool. 

The subjects of cesspools, sewage siphons, septic tanks, etc., are 
considered more thoroughly under the two plates following. 

WATER SUPPLY 

The manner in which the water supply for the country house 
shall be procured is always a matter of importance, and usually 
depends largely upon the natural facilities that exist. The methods 
commonly in use, are pumping by hand from wells or by power — such 
as windmill or pumping engine — supply by gravity, by siphonage, or 
by the use of a ram. In the use of a gravity supply, the source of 
supply must be at a higher elevation than the point of delivery. The 
siphon is used in procuring water from a higher point than the point 
of delivery, when a hill or other obstruction intervenes between the 



WATER SUPPLY 287 

two points, and over which the supply line must be carried. The ram 
can be used only when the source of supply is lower than the point 
of delivery, and when the supply is so located that the ram may be 
placed at a point below it. Thus it will be seen that in procuring a 
water supply, local conditions must usually govern the matter. In 
order to provide a head which shall deliver the water at the several 
points where it is to be used, an attic storage tank is generally used. 
A tank of 300 to 500 gallons will be found to be large enough for 
the ordinary country home. The tank when filled, represents an 
immense weight, and care must be taken in giving it a proper sup- 
port. This is easily done in installing a tank in a house in course 
of construction, but is often a difficult matter in an old house. The 
tank should be located where it will not freeze, near a chimney often 
being a good location. The top of the tank should be covered, in 
order that dust and dirt and odors may not reach the water, and a 
ventilating pipe should also be provided. 

The tank may be filled in many ways — by hand or power pump, 
windmill, pumping engine, or ram. Plate 47 shows the discharge 
pipe from the pump delivering to the tank over the top, the supply 
pipe to fixtures being taken out of the bottom. Another very good 
method is to connect the pump pipe into the bottom of the tank and 
use this same pipe as the down supply to the fixtures. 

This will save the necessity of running a separate supply pipe 
to the fixtures, and answers "the purpose as well. 

If a hand force pump is used, as shown in Plate 47, a faucet 
on the pump may be used to advantage. Drinking water may be 
pumped direct from the well through the faucet, and when this is 
closed it may be pumped into the tank. 

A tell-tale should always be provided, which should end, if pos- 
sible, at the point where the pump is located, in order that the per- 
son operating the pump may know by the escape of water, when the 
tank has been sufficiently filled. The tell-tale may enter the side of 
the tank, as shown, or pass through the bottom into a standing 
overflow. 

The attic tank should have an overflow either of ij4 _ or 1^2-in. 
pipe, which, if possible, should empty onto a roof. It may be carried 
into a fixture on a floor below. It is often convenient to discharge 
the overflow into the water-closet flush tank. 

When the attic tank is used, the hot-water supply for the house 



288 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is under tank pressure, and in order to provide for expansion, an 
expansion pipe should be taken from the highest point of the hot- 
water system and carried over the top of the tank, into which any 
expansion may vent itself. 

Under the tank a safe or drip pan should be placed, to take care 
of any leakage from the tank. From the safe a drip should be run 
into some open fixture in common use, in order that, by the escape 
of leakage through the pipe, warning of trouble may be given as 
quickly as possible. Sheet lead is generally used for drip pans or 
safes, while sheet copper is now mostly used for tank linings. When 
the attic tank is filled from a pump or ram, the ball cock and valve 
are not used, but when a supply by gravity is used, the ball cock and 
valve are necessary in order to regulate the flow of water as it is 
needed. 

A great objection to many well waters is their excessive hard- 
ness, which make them objectionable for kitchen and laundry pur- 
poses. When the natural supply is of this nature, the rain water 
falling on the roof of the house is collected and used for these pur- 
poses entirely, or as far as possible. 

Rain water may be discharged directly from the roof into the 
attic tank, as shown in Plate 47, the objection to this course being 
that a large part of the water must be lost through the overflow, 
and in the event of the stoppage of the overflow" during a heavy 
storm, the house would be in danger of being flooded. Instead of 
discharging the overflow upon the roof, it may be carried into a 
cistern, and all the water needed, thus saved. If desirable, the rain 
water may not be connected directly into the attic tank, but may be 
discharged into the cistern. 

In either case of using the cistern, a pump must be used to force 
the water into the attic tank. When the rain water is thus utilized, 
wholly or in part, the pump connection with the well may be allowed 
to remain as shown in Plate 47, to be used whenever the cistern 
water gives out, and for providing through the pump faucet, a sup- 
ply of drinking water. 

In the use of the faucet, there will often be sufficient storage of 
water in the pipe between the pump and the tank, without having 
to pump. 

It is best to use a cistern capable of holding a month's supply 
of rain water, in order that when a rainy period comes, enough water 



WATER SUPPLY 289 

» 

may be stored to last until it will probably be renewed. When entire 
dependence is made upon rain water, storage should be provided for 
a period of six weeks, if possible, at the rate of about twenty-five 
gallons per day for each inmate of the house. To some this rate of 
water use may seem excessive, but it is low rather than high, as 
extended experience shows. 

When the water supply must be economized, a much lower 
amount may be figured on, but when plumbing fixtures, such as 
water closets, are constantly in use, the rate increases rapidly. 

If possible, rain water should be screened before entering the 
attic tank, as leaves, twigs, slate, etc., enter the cistern in consider- 
able quantity. Filters are sometimes used for clearing the water, 
and screens of various kinds are employed. Devices known as rain- 
water separators may also be procured, which prevent the first wash- 
ings of a rain storm from entering the tank or cistern. 

Well water is no doubt used to a far greater extent in the coun- 
try than any other source of supply. Whether it is a well or spring 
or other source of supply, the greatest care should be taken in pro- 
viding against its contamination in any way. It is popularly con- 
sidered that the country is free from all manner of impure condi- 
tions, but it is true, nevertheless, that in the past, the death rate in 
country districts, where, apparently, living conditions are perfect, 
has been as great or greater from such diseases as typhoid fever 
than in cities. 

Generally a case of this dreaded disease in the country, may be 
traced to a contaminated well or other supply. For this reason every 
precaution should be taken. 

The well should never be located near a leeching cesspool, it 
being well to have at least 300 ft. separate them. A tight cesspool 
should not be located within 30 ft. of any well or other source of 
supply. 

In running a line of earthenware drain pipe, it should be kept 
as far away from any source of water supply as possible. 

Whenever possible, a cesspool or drain-pipe line should be lo- 
cated at a lower elevation than the well, in order that the natural 
drainage may carry any leakage away from, rather than toward, 
the well. 

The location and common use of wells within a few feet of 
privies, is a practice which may be seen in almost any country dis- 



2 9 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

trict, and is a practice which has been the direct cause of a large 
part of the typhoid-fever cases in the country. 

It is claimed that contaminated water in running through a com- 
paratively few feet of soil, will purify itself, and on the strength of 
this claim, many are willing to take chances in the use of drinking 
water coming from exposed sources. 

While this fact may be true under certain circumstances, it has 
little in it to cause a lessening of precautionary measures, as the con- 
taminating source is usually a permanent one, and the action of 
purification by filtration is not to be depended upon at a depth of 
more than three or four feet, as the admission of air, upon which 
the action depends, is not sufficient at greater depths. 

Wells are of three kinds, those which are dug, driven wells, and 
bored wells. 

The first named is the most common, and the driven well next. 

Even the driven or bored well is by no means proof against 
contamination, as impurities may enter the water at considerable 
distances from the well. . 

Many waters of sparkling appearance, and apparently abso- 
lutely pure, are very far from being what they appear, and too much 
attention cannot be given to the matter of precaution in securing a 
supply for country use which is absolutely pure, and then seeing to 
it that it is not contaminated later. 



Plate XLVIII 
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF CESSPOOLS 



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CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF CESSPOOLS 

The cesspool is made use of only in the absence of public 
sewers. Whenever entrance may be made into a public sewer, the 
use of the cesspool should be discontinued entirely. After public 
sewers have been constructed, cesspools are sometimes connected 
into the sewer instead of replacing them entirely, with a direct con- 
nection from house to sewer. This is extremely poor practice, for 
the cesspool should always be considered simply as a makeshift, made 
necessary by the absence of better facilities. The worst feature that 
presents itself in country plumbing, is the disposal of the soil in 
house sewage. 

When, as occasionally happens, the sewage of a house may be dis- 
charged into a running stream, the difficulty may be solved in the case 
of that particular house, although for all points lower down on such a 
stream, the water is polluted and should not be used for drinking pur- 
poses. Therefore this method is usually out of the question, even 
though such a stream is at hand. The only other practical method is 
to discharge the house sewage into a tank, from which the liquids may 
escape into the surrounding soil, the tank retaining the solid matter, 
including soil. Such a tank or compartment is called a cesspool. 
In Plate 48 are shown two forms of cesspool, the leeching and com- 
bination leeching and tight cesspools. The former is by far the more 
common type. The leeching cesspool is built of loose brick or stone, 
without the use of cement. Through the crevices or joints in the 
sides of the cesspool, the liquids leech out into the surrounding soil, 
leaving the solid matter to remain in the cesspool. A serious objec- 
tion to the use of this form of cesspool is that, after a time, the 
crevices become filled with soil and other solid matter, and the leech- 
ing process is interfered with. Another objection is that more or 
less solid matter passes off with the liquid into the surrounding soil, 
thereby in time destroying it as a filtering medium, upon the effect- 
iveness of which, the proper action of the cesspool depends. To be 
sure, when these results have come about, the liquids entering the 
cesspool may be carried into a second cesspool through an overflow, 

293 



294 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

in which case the first cesspool will continue to retain the solid part 
of the sewage, and the second cesspool to dispose of the liquids, some- 
what in the manner of the septic tank. 

When the first cesspool has become filled it may be emptied, 
and its use continued. Instead of discharging into one cesspool and 
overflowing into a second one, it may be more desirable, when the 
first cesspool is no longer able to perform its duties satisfactorily, 
to abandon it, disconnect the house drain from it and reconnect into 
a cesspool located in new soil. 

The only proper location for a leeching cesspool is in light or 
sandy soil, into which the liquids may leech and purify themselves 
by filtration. Sand is a recognized filtering medium. Filtration 
depends upon the action of certain bacteria which exist in the soil, 
their numbers being far greater in light soils than in those which 
are heavier, as in the former, air has an opportunity to reach the 
bacteria, without which the bacteria are unable to live. 

Therefore, at considerable depths, the action of filtration is not 
nearly so strong as at points nearer the surface, and for this reason, 
cesspools of comparatively small depth will give better service. 

While the employment of the leeching cesspool in the manner 
described above is the common method, a better method is to dis- 
charge the house drainage into a tight cesspool and connect it by 
overflow into a second cesspool of the leeching type, the first retain- 
ing the solids, which may be cleaned out, and the second cesspool 
leeching the liquids into the surrounding soil. The water-tight cess- 
pool should ordinarily be about six feet in diameter by ten feet in 
depth, and is usually built of brick, one brick thick, laid in Portland 
concrete, and provided with a 24-in. cast-iron cover and frame. A 
tight cesspool should not be located within two feet of any boundary 
line, or within ten feet of any house or rain-water cistern, or within 
thirty feet of any source of water supply. A leeching cesspool should 
not be located within 100 feet of any house or cistern, or within 300 
feet of any source of water supply. 

The house sewer should be trapped before entering a cesspool, 
and the trap provided with a 4-in. fresh-air inlet, which should be 
governed by the regular limitations surrounding the construction 
of fresh-air inlets. The cesspool, whether leeching or water-tight, 
should be vented by a 4-in. vent pipe, carried at least 10 ft. into the 
air. A convenient method is to carry this vent line on a stout pole 



CONSTRUCTION OF CESSPOOLS 295 

or post, set for the purpose. The ground above the cesspool should 
be banked with turf, in order to shed surface water and prevent its 
entrance into the cesspool. 

Rain water should not be discharged into a house sewer con- 
necting with a cesspool, as the latter will be flooded and called upon 
to take care of drainage which is not harmful to discharge upon the 
surface of the ground if properly provided for. It will be seen that 
the leeching and water-tight cesspool each has its own particular 
advantages, which, in the main, are not held in common. 

A most excellent form of cesspool, combining the features of 
these two types, is the combination leeching and tight cesspool shown 
in Plate 48, the construction and action of which are as follows: 

An excavation of proper size having been made, a heavy layer 
of broken stone is filled into the bottom, and upon this as a founda- 
tion a common brick, water-tight cesspool is built, a wide space being 
left between it and the sides of the excavation, which space is filled 
with broken stone. . Overflow outlets at several points around the 
cesspool, and exactly on the same level, are then constructed, which 
will allow liquids to pass over into the broken stone and leech into 
the soil, the heavy matter remaining in the water-tight cesspool, 
from which it may be removed at intervals. This form of cesspool 
takes up but little more room than an ordinary cesspool, is as efficient 
as the use of the tight cesspool overflowing into a leeching cesspool, 
and is in every way a very satisfactory arrangement for handling 
the drainage of a country house. The outlets should be on the same 
level, in order that the liquid may be distributed evenly into the 
broken stone. 

If these outlets are not placed on the same level, the lower ones 
will get nearly all the waste from the cesspool, and that part of the 
filtering material into which they discharge will after a time become 
filled with impurities, and thus be unfit to perform the duties required 
of it; whereas, if each outlet is made to take care of its proportional 
part of the work, the cesspool can be made to do good work for a 
much longer period. 

Notwithstanding that the main part of the solid matter remains 
in this cesspool, a small part at least of the solids is carried out into 
the broken stone. Instead of outlets of the style shown in Plate 48, 
very good outlets may be obtained by using half-S lead traps in an 
inverted position. 



296 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



The sewage should be brought into the cesspool in such a way 
that its contents will not be stirred up any more than possible. 

If the contents are disturbed, a greater amount of solid matter 
will be carried out through the overflows. By carrying the inlet 
pipe well down into the cesspool, the sewage will enter with less 
commotion than otherwise. 

While there is a great difference between the efficiencies of the 
several types of cesspools, it should always be remembered that this 
device at best is only made use of as the most practicable method of 
solving a difficult problem, at the least possible expense. In other 
words, the cesspool should be considered only as a necessary evil, to 
be used only when other methods cannot be employed. 

City plumbing ordinances make acknowledgment of this fact by 
prohibiting the use of cesspools in all sections of the city that are 
provided with public sewage facilities. A very great improvement 
over the cesspools, as shown in Plate 48, is to be found in the sep- 
tic tank. 

This subject is one of very great importance, and is taken up 
under the following plate. 






Plate XLIX 

CONSTRUCTION AND ACTION OF THE 
SEPTIC TANK— UNDERGROUND DIS- 
POSAL OF PARTIALLY PURIFIED 
SEWAGE— AUTOMATIC SEW- 
AGE SIPHONS 



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CONSTRUCTION AND ACTION OF THE SEPTIC TANK 

As stated under the preceding- plate, the use of the cesspool is 
a practice to be followed only as a last resort, when no better method 
can be employed. At best, however, the cesspool is a crude, filthy 
affair, although in times past it has served an important purpose. 
The use of the septic tank is to-day leading to the disuse of cess- 
pools, and it seems to be only a matter of time when the latter will 
be largely a thing of the past. 

One form of septic tank is shown in Fig. A, Plate 49. The 
house sewage is discharged into the first of the three compartments 
of the septic tank, this compartment being commonly known as the 
grit chamber, and in which the most important action of the tank 
takes place. From the grit chamber the liquid portion of the sewage 
overflows into the second, or settling chamber, and from this into 
the third or discharge chamber, from which the effluent may be dis- 
posed of in a number of different ways, which will be considered later. 

All three compartments of the septic tank are necessarily water- 
tight, the leeching process not being employed in connection with the 
septic tank. The action of the septic tank does not result in sepa- 
rating the solids from the liquids by mechanical means, the action 
being entirely of a bacterial nature. The reduction of sewage by 
means of the septic tank is by the action of certain bacteria which 
live and multiply in all fresh sewage. By means of this bacterial 
action, all forms of organic and vegetable matter are transformed 
from solids into liquids known as nitrates. Ordinarily this action 
effects the change from solid to liquid within a few hours. Even 
substances of such hard nature as bones, leather, etc., may be thus 
changed in form, although the time required is very much greater 
than in the case of substances of softer nature. 

The septic tank is made generally of sufficient size to hold about 
a day's accumulation of sewage. The action of the class of bacteria 
which act upon sewage requires neither light nor air; in fact, both 
light and air should not be allowed to enter the septic tank. A cer- 
tain amount of warmth must be maintained in order to provide for 

299 



300 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

the proper action of the bacteria, although no special arrangement 
to provide heat is necessary. There is considerable heat present in 
all house sewage, and the sinking of the tank underground provides 
an additional amount, as also the action of the bacteria itself. To 
secure the best results, the sewage which enters the septic tank should 
be well diluted. 

The presence of a supply of air in the septic tank not only stops 
the action of the bacteria, but allows the contents to putrefy, as in 
the use of the cesspool. Without the presence of air, obnoxious gases 
do not form, and therefore, even when opened for a short time, the 
septic tank does not throw off foul odors and gases in any amount. 

In starting a septic tank there is nothing to be done of a special 
nature, after the plant has been made ready, beyond the admission 
of sewage to it. For the tank to reach a high state of efficiency, 
however, requires a sufficient length of time to elapse for the bac- 
teria to breed and form in sufficient numbers. This period varies 
with conditions that are present, from one to three weeks. On the 
surface of the sewage standing in the tank, a thick coating or scum 
of vegetable and animal matter soon forms, in which the bacteria 
breed and perform their work of disintegration. 

Upon the under side of this scum their action is particularly 
strong, the solids being transformed within the space of a few hours 
into liquids, which are in the form of ammonia compounds. 

The scum on the surface of the sewage varies greatly in thick- 
ness, but is sometimes of such an amount and so compact that the 
weight of a person can be sustained upon it. The bacteria also form 
upon the sides of the tank, thus attacking the sewage from every 
direction. 

The numbers of these bacteria are so great as to be inconceiv- 
able, millions of them being present in a very small volume of the 
sewage. 

In order that the best results may be obtained, the bacteria should 
be disturbed as little as possible. They adhere to almost any rough 
substance, but upon glass and similar surfaces they do not seem to 
be able to gain a hold. Great care should be taken against break- 
ing or disturbing the scum in any way. Therefore, the inlet, as it 
enters the grit chamber, should discharge through a bend to a point 
well below the surface of the sewage, as shown in Fig. A. 

Metallic and other substances upon which the bacteria are unable 



THE SEPTIC TANK 301 

to act, settle to the bottom of the grit chamber, which should be 
cleaned out occasionally, and for this purpose each chamber of the 
septic tank should be provided with a 24-in. iron cover, fitting tightly 
into an iron frame securely embedded in the masonry. 

From the grit chamber the liquids collecting in that compartment 
overflow into the settling chamber. This overflow should be so con- 
structed as to transfer the liquids with the slightest possible disturb- 
ance of the contents of the settling chamber. The method of over- 
flow shown in Fig. A is a good one to follow, as it allows the liquid 
to trickle over as it collects. The process of disintegration is con- 
tinued in the settling chamber, although to a much less extent than 
in the grit chamber, for the reason that the sewage has been so far 
purified in the latter that there is not the substance present in the 
settling chamber to give life to the countless numbers of bacteria that 
exist in the settling chamber. In many plants, a third chamber is 
added, into which the effluent overflows before reaching the discharg- 
ing chamber, the septic action being less in each successive chamber, 
owing to the increasing purity of the liquids. 

From the last settling chamber the effluent overflows into a dis- 
charge chamber usually, although in some cases it is discharged 
directly from - the settling chamber to the final place of disposal. 

A great factor in the successful operation of the septic tank is 
the formation of the scum on the surface of the sewage. This scum 
not only provides working ground for the bacteria, but aids in pre- 
venting the penetration of light and air when the cover is removed, 
and holds the heat contained in the sewage and prevents the striking 
through of colder air. This scum sometimes reaches a thickness of 
over a foot and a half. After the effluent reaches the discharge 
chamber, or in some cases the last settling chamber, the method of 
final disposal must be determined, the decision being made with due 
regard to the existing local conditions. If a running stream or 
ravine is convenient, the solution is often easily made by discharg- 
ing the sewage into such a natural disposing medium or ground. 

When the effluent reaches the discharge chamber, it has been 
purified to a great extent, but not entirely, and unless some natural 
means of disposal, such as a stream, is at hand, it is necessary to 
make provision for the carrying on of this final purifying process, 
which is commonly known as filtration. 

A method quite commonly employed, consists in discharging the 



3 o2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

effluent into a specially prepared trench close to the surface of the 
ground, or with its upper face open. 

For ordinary residences, a trench 1 8 to 20 ft. in length and 3 or 
4 ft. in depth should be sufficient, the trench being made of corre- 
spondingly larger dimensions when greater amounts of liquid must 
be cared for. At the bottom of the trench a thick layer of broken 
stone should be filled in, and above this a layer of gravel. Above 
the gravel a layer of coarse sand is sometimes used. Into this trench 
the liquid from the septic tank is discharged, and provision should be 
made for distributing it as evenly over the filtering bed as possible, 
in order that no one part of the trench may be called upon to per- 
form a greater amount of work than is its share. If too large an 
amount of liquid is delivered at one point, it cannot be properly 
cared for by the filtering material, and is therefore not properly 
purified. 

This form of disposal is sometimes carried further, by collecting 
the water filtered through the trench into an under drain, and from 
this pipe discharging it into a second filter. From the second filter 
the water may be pumped out onto the surface instead of allowing 
it to leech away into the soil. When pumped from the second filter, 
the sewage which entered the septic tank, has been transformed into 
an absolutely pure form. That this is true may be, seen from the 
fact that such pump water has in some instances been used for 
drinking purposes. 

Sometimes the liquid discharged from the discharge tank is 
deposited over the surface of the ground, where filtration and 
the purifying action of the sun's rays complete the final purifying 
operation. 

This practice is not generally practicable, however, for various 
obvious reasons, among which are the lack of sufficient exposed sur- 
face of light soil, the proximity of other dwellings, the difficulty of 
securing an even distribution over the surface, etc. 

UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL OF PARTIALLY PURIFIED 

SEWAGE 

As a general thing, the most practicable method of final disposal 
of partially purified sewage, is obtained by discharging the contents 
of the discharge tank into an underground system of distributing 






UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 303 

pipes. Such a system is shown in Fig. B, the illustration showing 
a plan view of the system. 

If the soil is light and porous, there is no difficulty in the use 
of this method of disposal, but it is not so satisfactory in its results 
when used in other soils. 

Good judgment should be used in determining the method of 
providing for final disposal of sewage. In the case of a moist soil, 
which is unfit for filtering purposes, the system mentioned above may 
be employed to advantage; that is, by the use of filter beds placed 
underground, the final filtered product being pumped out onto the 
surface. The underground disposal system, irrespective of the means 
of discharging the contents of the discharge tank into it, consists of 
a connection from the discharge tank into a main distributing under- 
ground pipe, from which a number of branches are taken out, the 
object of the piping being to distribute the liquid as evenly over the 
area used for disposal purposes as possible. These branch lines of 
pipe should be of unglazed earthenware, laid with open joints, so 
that through them the liquids may escape. These pipes may be laid 
in any way to conform to the shape of the distributing area. 

Laterals may be constructed of 2-in. pipe, and it is well to allow 
an opening of nearly a quarter of an inch at each joint. 

If such a joint is unprotected, sand will find its way into the 
pipe and gradually choke it up. Therefore it is well to use a thimble 
or collar of some sort to cover each joint. This collar may be a short 
piece of earthen pipe of a larger size than the pipe to be protected. 
Generally the branch distributing lines should be laid from 3^2 to 
4 ft. or more apart, in order that too large an amount of liquid may 
not be deposited over a given area. 

The pipes should be graded, for otherwise the liquid will escape 
in larger quantity through joints nearer the main, and those farthest 
from it will have comparatively little to do. If the soil is moist or 
of clay, the laterals should be run farther apart than in sandy soils. 
Experience shows that about one to one and a half feet of porous, 
loose-jointed tile is necessary to properly handle a gallon of liquid, 
according to the nature of the soil, and for heavy soils a greater 
length. Therefore, in providing underground disposal for a dis- 
charge tank holding 500 gallons of liquid, from 500 to 750 ft. of 
2-in. pipe would be demanded for its underground disposal. 

In grading the main distributing pipe, as well as the laterals, 



3 o 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

there is one point that should be guarded against. The pitch should 
be very gradual, as, if much pitch is given them, the liquid will quickly 
flow to the farthest ends of the main and laterals, and overburden 
such areas, while not giving other areas a sufficient share. 

Common fittings should not be used in connecting the laterals 
with the main, as the branch in such fittings is from the middle, and 
this would not allow all the liquid in the main to pass into the laterals. 
Special fittings are made for this kind of work, in which the branch 
is dropped below the center of the main fitting, sufficiently to allow 
all liquid in the main to escape though the branch. 

Unless these fittings are used on the main, the latter should be 
run with open joints, in order that at each discharge of liquid the 
entire volume may be able to escape into the soil. In order to give 
perfect results, the area covered, and the length of pipe used, should 
be sufficient to thoroughly dispose of one discharge of liquid before 
another is received. 

This final purifying action of filtration is the result of the action 
of a class of bacteria which are of entirely different character to 
those which do such effective work in the purifying process that goes 
on in the septic tank. While the latter operate out of contact with 
light and air, the action of the bacteria in the filtration purifying 
process, depends entirely on the presence of air and light. 

These bacteria exist in countless numbers in the air spaces 
which sand and other porous substances contain, their existence in 
such materials depending on the fact that air is. easily admitted, upon 
which they depend. The better a filtering medium is for its purpose, 
the more porous it will be found to be. As air is admitted more 
easily to the soil near the surface, at these points bacteria will be 
found in the greatest number, and as greater depths are reached, the 
number of these bacteria rapidly decreases until their number is in- 
sufficient to accomplish satisfactory work. 

Therefore, the nearer the surface the underground distributing 
pipes are run, the greater the efficiency of the system. If possible, 
these pipes should be laid about a foot from the surface. Owing to 
frost, however, they must generally be laid deeper. 

If areas used for underground disposal are turfed over it will 
be found that the turf will afford considerable protection against 
frost. While the bacteria in the septic tank change the complex 
forms of sewage into simple chemical compounds, the action of the 



AUTOMATIC SEWAGE SIPHONS 305 

bacteria of the sand again changes the chemical nature of the 
liquid, the change being from nitrites into nitrates, and resulting in 
chemically pure water. 

When first passed through primary or contact filter beds of 
broken stone and gravel, the liquid is broken up, and its particles 
exposed to the oxidizing action of the bacteria, and the action in the 
sand filter is similar, although more thorough. 

The entire change from sewage in the most extreme condition 
of contamination into pure water, is made by these simple processes, 
there being no outlay for expensive apparatus of any kind, or any 
demand for outlay in running expenses. A plant constructed on these 
lines may be, and often is, used for the reduction of the entire sew- 
age of villages and small towns, which could otherwise dispose of the 
public sewage only with great difficulty, and doubtless far less effi- 
ciently, and with much greater expense. 

The same system, on a smaller scale, may be employed for a 
residence, and with safety, even in thickly populated districts, for all 
the apparatus may be located underground, and, as already explained, 
its nature is such that it is in no way a menace, such as the cesspool 
always is. 

The whole plant for a small residence may usually be located in 
a back yard of ordinary size. 

While in many locations the close proximity of the septic tank 
to the house is not objectionable, in the use of it in cities certain 
restrictions are advisable, for it is not certain that it will receive 
proper attention, that leakage from the different chambers may not 
occur, etc. 

Therefore, except in the case of houses surrounded by a con- 
siderable extent of private grounds, it should not be used in thickly 
populated districts unless unavoidable. Its use in such places, how- 
ever, is not often called for, owing to the presence of public sewers. 

AUTOMATIC SEWAGE SIPHONS 

After the introduction of the septic tank it was seen that ordi- 
nary methods of discharging the contents were not desirable. 

For instance, in the employment of underground systems of dis- 
posal, an ordinary constant discharge from the septic tank would 
give poor results, as the liquid entering the main distributing pipe 



306 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

would be of such small amount that it would escape through the 
nearest joints, and never reach those farthest away. This would 
result in giving all the disposal work to a very small area, an amount 
greater than it could accomplish. In addition, a period of rest fol- 
lowing a period of work is necessary in order that the supply of air 
to the bacteria may be renewed. To solve this difficulty, it was seen 
that intermittent discharges of the full contents of the discharge 
chamber were necessary, the interval between successive discharges 
being a number of hours in duration. 

The automatic sewage siphon is the device employed for this 
purpose. There are numerous varieties on the market, depending 
for their action on more or less similar principles. 

In Fig. A of Plate 49, a very desirable form of sewage siphon 
is shown, attached to the outlet end of the discharge chamber of a 
septic tank. Its action is the following, depending upon the confin- 
ing of air between the liquid standing in the outlet of the siphon and 
the seal of the large trap: As the liquid rises in the discharge cham- 
ber, this confined air becomes constantly more compressed, until the 
pressure is great enough to blow the water out of the blow-ofT trap, 
thereby relieving the air, which is immediately followed by a heavy 
flow of water from the discharge chamber, of sufficient volume to 
quickly fill the long vertical arm, and start the siphon into full action, 
which continues until air enters the siphon from the outlet pipe 
through the air pipe. 

Air enters the air pipe only when the siphon has drawn the 
liquid in the tank so low that the siphon does not fill the outlet. A 
quick passage of the contents of the discharge chamber into the 
siphon is provided for by enlarging the outlet from the tank. 

On pages 366, 367, 368, 369 and 370 will be found illustrations 
showing additional types of septic tanks and methods of disposal of 
the discharge from septic tanks. 



Plate L 

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY 

—HYDRAULIC RAMS— PUMPS— WATER 

SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE— PUMPING 

BY WINDMILL— CAPACITY OF 

TANKS — PROTECTION OF 

SUPPLY PIPES AGAINST 

FREEZING 



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PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY 

In considering the g'eneral subject of country plumbing under 
a previous plate, allusion has been made to different methods of pro- 
curing a supply of water for use in the country, where there is no 
system of public supply. In addition to the attic-tank system, which 
is so generally used to supply country houses, there is another sys- 
tem, known as the pneumatic system of supply, which has many 
advantages over the old method. This system is of comparatively 
recent introduction, and depends in its operation upon compressed 
air. The use of this system is dependent only on the ability to pro- 
cure a generous supply of water from a well, cistern, spring, or other 
source from which it may be pumped. A very important feature of 
this system is the fact that the tank may be located anywhere, either 
in the cellar, stable, underground, or at any other point where there 
is no danger of frost. 

This allows a pressure to be maintained on the water piping, 
without the necessity of using an attic tank, with all its attendant 
evils, such as the danger of leakage, straining of timbers under its 
great weight, etc. The tank is of wrought iron or steel, air tight, 
and is generally filled by a power pump, pumping engine, or wind- 
mill pump, although, excepting as a matter of labor and convenience, 
it may be filled by the use of the hand pump. 

Either a vertical or horizontal tank may be used, as most con- 
venient. 

There are several systems of pneumatic water supply on the 
market, the principal difference being in the methods employed in 
providing for the admission of air into the tank. In Plate 50, 
Fig. A represents the pneumatic tank located in the cellar, and 
Fig. B the tank located underground. The latter shows the use of 
a hand pump, and the former shows a lift-force pump operated by 
means of a brake. In both systems, which, by the way, are made 
by different manufacturers, it will be noted that both the force pipe 
from the pump and the supply pipe to fixtures, etc., connect into the 
bottom of the tank. A check valve between the pump and the tank 

309 



310 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is necessary, to hold the pressure in the tank when the pump is not 
in operation. 

When the pump is in operation, a certain amount of air is 
pumped into the tank at every stroke, through a special form of auto- 
matic air valve. As the water rises in the tank, the air becomes more 
and more compressed, and when the tank has been filled about two- 
thirds full, it will be found that the air pressure is sufficient to force 
the water to any height ordinarily desired. In connection with the 
tank in Fig. A, a water gauge, seen at the left, serves to show the 
height of water in the tank, and a pressure gauge shows the pressure 
which the water is under, and indicates to the operator at the pump, 
when a sufficient pressure has been reached. 

A pressure of 75 lbs. may be reached with the pneumatic sys- 
tem, and the manufacturers will guarantee a pressure of 50 lbs. The 
latter pressure is sufficient to raise water 100 ft., and as 20 lbs. or so 
is sufficient to raise it to the third floor or attic, it will be clear that 
50 lbs. is ample for country use of almost any character. Manu- 
facturers also guarantee to deliver water by means of this system 
through horizontal lines of pipe a mile in length. 

The advantages of a pneumatic system are many. It not only 
does away with the attic tank, but allows the apparatus to be located 
conveniently to the pump, where it may be watched while the pump 
is running; the danger of freezing, common to elevated tanks placed 
out of doors, is avoided, also the expense of erecting towers to hold 
such a tank. An advantage to be gained in placing the tank under- 
ground, is that water delivered by it, is very nearly of a uniform 
temperature during all seasons of the year. The application of the 
pneumatic system of water supply covers a wide range, for it may 
be used in connection with a farm, for instance to provide a supply 
of water not only to the house, but also to the stables, carriage wash 
room, milk room, and may be used for lawn and garden purposes 
and in case of fire. The latter is a protection which country houses 
have always been sadly in need of, without the opportunity of filling 
the need. This same system has a much larger application in sup- 
plying institutions, factories, and even entire villages. 

If the demand is not too great, one large tank may be used. 
Otherwise one pump working continuously, or during certain periods, 
can be used to fill as many tanks, located in different houses, as 
desired. For ordinary house use — that is, where the supply is to be 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 311 

used only for household purposes — a tank holding 400 or 500 gallons 
will be found satisfactory. Tanks for pneumatic supply purposes are 
generally tested under at least 150 lbs. pressure, and are therefore 
strong enough to produce any desired pressure. 

The pressure produced in the use of the attic tank, however, 
is simply of an amount due to its height above the level at which 
water is delivered. 

It may be stated that, in the use of a windmill pumping into a 
pneumatic tank, a regulating cylinder may be used, which will stop 
the action of the windmill whenever any given pressure in the tank 
is reached. 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 

The use of the hydraulic ram is the solution of many an other- 
wise difficult problem in securing a supply of water in the country. 
It is only under certain conditions that the ram can be made use of, 
but when feasible it serves a valuable purpose without further cost 
than that of installing it. 

In order to use the ram, the spring or other source of supply 
must be situated so that the ram may be located below it, with an 
opportunity for the waste water from the ram to be carried away 
from it. Such a location is usually to be found on a side hill. 

The operation of the hydraulic ram is based on the following 
principle: When a body of water is discharged downward through 
a pipe running at an angle, and its passage out of the end of the pipe 
is suddenly stopped, the momentum which the body of water has 
gained, will force a part of the water to a much higher level than 
that of the water before it passed into the pipe. The connections of 
the hydraulic ram are to be seen in Fig. C of Plate 50. 

In this case the source of supply for the ram is a spring located 
above it, as necessarily required. The water enters the ram from 
the spring, through a pipe which is called the drive pipe, its passage 
being checked by the waste valve when it attempts to escape. The 
momentum acquired by the water in falling through the drive pipe, 
forces whatever water is not lost through the waste valve, up into 
the air chamber, compressing the air in the latter. A check valve 
at the entrance to the air chamber prevents any escape of the water 
in a backward direction, and the compressed air of the air chamber 



3 i2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

forces it through the only other outlet, that is, through the force pipe, 
which carries it to the point of delivery. It is necessary to maintain 
a supply of air in the air chamber of the ram, and this is accom- 
plished by an air valve, which admits air at each stroke, at a point 
below the air chamber. 

The proper operation of the ram depends entirely on the work- 
ing of the waste valve. When this valve is properly arranged, the 
action of the ram is continuous so long as it is supplied with water. 
In order that the valve shall be properly arranged to be self-acting, 
it should- be weighted heavily enough to overbalance the pressure 
against its lower face. When a volume of water flows down the 
drive pipe from the spring, its weight and momentum is sufficient to 
suddenly close the waste valve. When this occurs the water in the 
drive pipe is for an instant without motion, and the force against 
the valve face is not great enough to keep it closed. 

The valve therefore opens, the water in the drive pipe is again 
set moving, and in seeking to escape through the valve, again closes 
it. This alternate opening and closing of the waste valve thus con- 
tinues without intermission, each descent of the water through the 
drive pipe forcing water up into the air chamber and thence to the 
point at which it is to be delivered. An overflow should be provided 
to the spring or whatever source of supply is used, in order that the 
water may always stand at the same height above the waste valve. 
If otherwise, the weight on the waste valve will not be properly 
adjusted, and the ram, therefore, not self-acting. 

The air valve is an important feature of the ram. In all sup- 
ply work, air is taken up mechanically by the water, and all air 
chambers in time lose their air by this means, and become water- 
logged. 

This would be a serious matter in the use of the hydraulic ram, 
as the operation of the weighted waste valve without an air chamber, 
would cause a violent shock at each stroke, which would be felt 
throughout the supply piping, resulting in a loud cracking and rum- 
bling noise, and possibly in the destruction of the piping as well. 

The air enters by virtue of the creation of a partial vacuum at 
the inner face of the valve, which allows atmospheric pressure to 
open the valve at each stroke and force in a small quantity of air, 
thus renewing any loss that the air chamber may have sustained. 

Rams may be operated with a difference in level between the 



HYDRAULIC RAMS 313 

waste valve and surface of the source of supply of only 16 in., 
although a greater difference is desirable for good results. It is 
better practice to use a fall somewhat greater than actually required 
to perform the work, but not much greater, as an excessive fall 
means greater momentum, with a consequent greater wear and tear 
on the ram and piping. Five to 10 ft. is an amount of fall on the 
drive pipe that can generally be depended upon for good work. 
Manufacturers of the common makes of hydraulic rams claim that 
the ram will deliver approximately one-seventh of the water entering 
the ram, to a height approximately five times the difference of eleva- 
tion of the waste valve and surface of the spring, and to a height 
twenty times such difference in elevation, one-fourteenth of the water 
entering the ram. The greater the height through which the water 
is to be raised, then, the greater will be the waste of water. 

This waste of water is the one great obstacle, in many cases, to 
the use of the ram, as it generally requires a considerable supply 
to operate it. Rams or hydraulic engines are now made, for which 
the manufacturers claim a much higher rate of efficiency than can 
be obtained in the use of the common ram. While the action of the 
common ram depends upon the opening and closing of a heavily 
weighted valve, the valve in the modern hydraulic engine is made 
very much lighter, its opening resulting from the creation of a 
vacuum below the valve, and the weight on the waste valve being so 
regulated that the latter almost balances. This results in the rapid 
opening and closing of the valve, which in turn results in a quicker 
stroke. These and other improvements guarantee, as claimed by 
the manufacturers, 30 ft. of elevation of the water in the delivery 
pipe from the ram, for each foot that the water descends in entering 
the ram from the source of supply. This result, it is claimed, is 
accomplished with much less waste of water. The modern hydraulic 
engine will operate under any fall on the drive pipe, from 18 in. to 
50 ft., will force water to a height of 500 ft., and is made in sizes 
capable of pumping any amount of water up to 1,000,000 gallons, 
during twenty-four hours. 

The waste water should be carried away by a drain as fast as 
it collects in the ram pit, for if not, it will back up and prevent the 
operation of the ram. 

The drive pipe of the ram should be about twice the diameter 
of the force pipe; it should run on an incline without other bends 



3 i4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

than the one necessary to carry it into the ram; and this pipe should 
be air-tight. The end of the drive pipe in the spring, should be sub- 
merged to keep out air, and be provided with a strainer to prevent 
entrance into the ram of foreign substances, as the lodgment of 
such substances on the valve may prevent its proper action. 

In order to provide an unbroken incline of the drive pipe to the 
ram, when it is impossible to do so in the ordinary manner without 
making a very deep excavation, a tank or stand pipe with open end 
may be placed on the pipe at some point between the ram and the 
place where it is necessary to bend it, such tank or stand pipe being 
of sufficient height to allow water to stand in it at the same level as 
in the original source of supply. 

A form of ram known as the double-acting ram is now built, 
and is of much value when the supply of pure water to be used for 
water supply is limited, and a poorer quality of water is also at hand. 
By means of this ram the poorer water supply is utilized to operate 
the ram, the latter delivering to the house-supply system only the 
pure water. The ram has a great variety of applications in country 
work, and is very generally in use not only for private supplies, but 
for supplying institutions, factories, etc., and even on public supplies 
of towns and villages. 

PUMPS 

The simplest form of pump is the suction pump, and this is the 
form most commonly in use. Its action depends upon atmospheric 
pressure, which at sea level is approximately 15 lbs. to the square 
inch, and therefore capable of raising water to a height somewhat 
over 33 ft. in a perfect vacuum. 

The suction pump is provided with an upper and a lower box. 
When the pump piston moves upward, it creates a more or less per- 
fect vacuum behind it, and as a consequence the atmospheric pres- 
sure exerted on the surface of the water in the well, forces in water 
to fill this vacuum. 

When the piston descends, the lower box closes and the upper 
box opens, allowing the water in the pump to pass through the 
upper box into the barrel of the pump, and be emptied out of the 
spout when the piston is next raised. By means of the suction pump, 
water can never be raised through the entire theoretical height of 



PUMPS . 315 

33 ft, as a perfect vacuum cannot be produced in the pump, and 
because of the friction of the water in passing through the pipe. 

The lift pump is another common form of pump, especially use- 
ful in driven wells. 

The barrel of this pump, and the lower valve, are set below the 
surface of the water in the well, the upward stroke of the piston 
lifting the water without the help of atmospheric pressure as in the 
suction pump. 

The lower cylinder is made small enough to fit into the bore 
of a driven well, and provided at its lower end with a strainer. 

When the cylinder is not of sufficient length to reach into the 
water, a suction pipe may be connected to it, the pump then deliver- 
ing water both by suction and lifting. 

A third form is the lift-force pump. It has the same upper 
and lower valves that the suction pump has, but has a tight top pro- 
vided with stuffing box, through which the pump rod works. At a 
point above the upper box, a force or delivery pipe is connected, in 
which is a check valve. As the water is raised above the upper box 
by suction, it opens the check valve in the force pipe, and passes into 
it. On the down stroke this check valve is closed by the water above 
it, thus allowing the force pipe to hold all the water that enters it. 
These pumps are always provided with an air chamber on the force 
pipe, which produces a steady stream instead of a broken one, and 
also prevents any strain on the pump and piping. 

There is also the double-acting force pump, which delivers water 
on each stroke, whether upward or downward. This is a modified 
form of the common force pump, contains four valves, and gives a 
constant stream, which is very desirable for fire and other purposes. 

For providing a large supply of water for small public-supply sys- 
tems, for factories, institutions, and fire purposes, a system of driven 
wells may be used to great advantage, according to methods similar 
to the following, providing such supply is of sufficient amount. 
Below the surface of the ground, and below the frost line, a line of 
main pipe is laid, from the middle of which a smaller pipe of proper 
size is run up to the surface and connected to the power pump as a 
suction. At intervals along the line of main horizontal pipe, these 
intervals depending on the amount of the supply that exists under- 
ground, connections are taken to numerous driven pipes. These 
pipes connect to driven wells located several feet from the main, the 



3 i6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

entire system of driven wells covering sufficient area to enable the 
requisite amount of water to be obtained. Generally the driven wells 
are sunk at irregular depths. Such a system, operated by a power 
pump or pumping engine, will deliver a very large supply of water. 

A few remarks on driven wells may be of value. 

When water has been struck, it is necessary to know how much 
of the strainer is submerged, to find which information, a string with 
a small weight attached may be let down into the drive pipe, and 
when withdrawn, the length that has been wet, noted. If the strainer 
is entirely submerged, the water should be tested, and if found of 
undesirable quality the driving should continue until a satisfactory 
supply is obtained. An old pump is then screwed onto the drive pipe 
and operated until the water issuing from it comes clear and free 
of sand. The strainer on the drive pipe may not become clogged 
for a period of twelve or fifteen years, or possibly longer. When 
this happens, it becomes necessary to draw out the old pipe and 
replace the old strainer with a new one, or, if unable to withdraw 
the pipe, to drive a new well. 

WATER SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE 

When the source of a water supply is at a higher elevation than 
the point at which the water is to be delivered, and there are no 
intervening obstructions between the two points, the supply may be 
delivered by gravity. 

When there is a hill or rise of land between the source and the 
point of delivery, however, the only method that may be employed 
is to convey the water by means of siphonage. 

If the intervening elevation rises above the source to a height 
to which atmospheric pressure cannot force the water, the siphon 
cannot be made to work. Theoretically, the siphon will raise water 
to a height somewhat above 33 ft., but in actual practice, owing to 
friction and the lack of an absolutely perfect vacuum, this height 
Cannot be reached by several feet. The great obstacle to obtaining 
a supply of water by siphonage is the accumulation of air at the high 
point or points on the supply line. This trouble may be remedied by 
the use of cocks located accessibly at the high points, through which 
to vent the collections of air. They must be opened frequently in 
order that the siphon may operate properly, and such constant atten- 



WATER SUPPLY BY SIPHONAGE 317 

tion is always a matter of inconvenience. If not given frequent 
attention, however, the siphon will soon cease entirely to deliver 
water. 

There is comparatively little trouble experienced from air-lock 
in siphons that lift water through distances of 10 ft. or under, and 
empty it at a point low enough to develop a strong flow. Under 
such circumstances, the air mixed with the water is carried along 
with it. In the case of lifts much greater than 10 ft., however, air 
begins to give trouble, the trouble increasing rapidly as the lift is 
increased, especially when the crown of the siphon is sharp and un- 
able to contain much air. Under the latter conditions, the siphon 
will cease working in a very few hours. Another method sometimes 
employed to relieve the siphon of air, is the placing of an air pump 
on the crown of the siphon, for use in pumping out the air that may 
have collected. The interval between successive operations of such 
a pump cannot be definitely stated, as the nature of the water some- 
times affects this matter, as well as the height through which the 
water is raised. 

There is still another method, more effective than either of 
those already described, which may be applied as follows. A con- 
nection should be made at the top of the siphon into a galvanized 
sheet-iron tank of 2 or 3 gallons capacity. Between this tank and 
the siphon a shut-off is located, and also one above it, a funnel being 
soldered into the upper end of it. Close the lower cock and open 
the upper one to allow water to be poured in, which should fill the 
tank and the funnel. 

If the upper cock is then closed and the lower one opened, the 
water will drive out the air in the siphon and maintain the siphon 
in this condition until the tank becomes ernpt)^. When the tank has 
drained out, close the lower cock, open the upper one, and refill the 
tank. Now again open the lower cock and close the upper one, and 
the tank is prepared to perform its work as a receiver for the air 
that accumulates at the crown of the siphon. 

By the use of such a device as this, the siphon may be kept free 
of air for a considerable length of time. The larger the tank used, 
the longer the interval between the successive fillings. Galvanized 
wrought-iron pipe and galvanized cast-iron fittings are better suited 
for siphons than other materials. 

The use of cast iron with caulked lead joints for large siphons, 



318 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

is very poor policy, as experience shows that much difficulty is expe- 
rienced in keeping it air-tight, a very essential feature in the proper 
operation of a siphon. 

The siphon may be made to cover a very wide range of work, 
as siphons of large size may be used as successfully as those of 
smaller size. In the use of large-pipe siphons, however, it is neces- 
sary to use special starting apparatus and to provide for constant 
attention to the removal of air at all high points. These siphons have 
been made to carry water through distances of many miles. The 
same principle is successfully applied to the disposal of sewage under 
similar circumstances, large amounts of sewage being thus handled. 



PUMPING BY WINDMILL 

The following suggestions on windmill pumping may be found 
of value. One of the most desirable features in this work is the 
efficiency of the plant in light winds. A pump used in connection 
with a windmill should be of smaller size than when operated by hand. 

When water is pumped by hand, a pump must be used which 
will perform the greatest amount of work in the shortest time. 

The requirements are different in the use of windmills, how- 
ever, for generally the windmill need not run more than three or 
four hours of the day to supply the tank with all the water that is 
necessary. During certain seasons of the year there are many days 
when the wind is very light, and at such times the windmill should 
work under as light a load as possible in order that it may be certain 
of performing some work continuously under such adverse condi- 
tions. Therefore a small pump, even though unable to furnish more 
than half the water that could be pumped by hand during a given 
time, will prove most satisfactory. 

The use of a small pump will allow the windmill to work a 
greater number of hours during light winds, and will be found to 
pump more water during the entire twenty-four hours of the day 
than a larger pump would. 

A great mistake is commonly made in building the windmill 
tower too low. It should be of such height that the wind may reach 
it freely and without being interrupted in any way. Neighboring 
buildings, trees, hills, etc., determine the height at which it should 



CAPACITY OF TANKS 319 

be built. If such obstructions are met with, the tower should rise 
10 ft. above them. 

Another point to be considered is that when such obstructions 
exist, they are liable during high winds to be the means of producing 
eddies and counter currents, which result harmfully to the windmill. 
Moreover, the currents of air at elevations farther away from the 
ground become more steady and uniform, allowing the windmill to 
work more efficiently and with less wear and tear. For the reasons 
above mentioned, windmill towers should ordinarily be constructed 
not less than 30 ft. in height, and of sufficient strength and firmness 
to give the windmill as great stability and freedom from vibration 
as is possible. The following information is necessary in giving 
intelligent data concerning the selection and installation of a wind- 
mill proper for the work required: 

The character of the well and its depth should be known — 
whether it is a driven, drilled, or dug well; if drilled, the inside 
diameter of the casing must be known; the height and distance 
through which water is required to be raised, these dimensions being 
taken from the foot of the pump to the bottom of the storage tank. 

The amount of water entering the well during the dry seasons 
should be known, also the size of tank used, and the amount of 
water required for an entire day's use, and the height necessary 
to construct the windmill tower to provide free access of wind to 
the windmill. 



CAPACITY OF TANKS 

In connection with windmills, rams, etc., which pump to storage 
tanks, it is often required to estimate the dimensions of tanks to hold 
certain amounts of water, or to find how many gallons are held by 
tanks of certain dimensions. 

These tanks are generally either rectangular or cylindrical in 
shape. In either case the cubic contents of the tank in cubic inches, 
divided by 231, will show the number of gallons which the tank is 
capable of holding, 231 representing the number of cubic inches in 
a gallon. If the dimensions of the tank are in feet, the capacity may 
be found by multiplying the cubic feet of contents of the tank by 
7.476, this quantity representing the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 



320 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The following rules will give the capacity in gallons of rectan- 
gular and cylindrical tanks. 

To find the capacity of a rectangular tank: Multiply the internal 
length, breadth, and depth in feet together, and multiply this result 
by 7.476. Or multiply together the three interior dimensions in 
inches and divide the result by 231. 

To find the capacity of a cylindrical tank: Multiply the square 
of half the interior diameter in feet by 3.1416, multiply this result by 
the depth in feet, and this result by 7.476. Or multiply the square 
of half the interior diameter in inches by 3.1416, then multiply this 
result by the depth in inches, and divide this result by 231. 

If a tapering cylindrical tank is used, add the large and small 
diameters together, and find half this amount. This will give the 
average diameter, and the contents may then be found by the regular 
rule for cylindrical tanks. 

Thus, the capacity of a rectangular tank measuring 4X5X6 
ft. will be found in the following manner: 

4 X 5 X 6 X 7476 = 897 gallons, 
or 

(48 X 60 X 72) ^- 231 = 897 

The capacity of a cylindrical tank 5 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. 
deep will be found as follows : 

2.5 X 2.5 X 3-HI6 X 6 X 747 6 = 88i gallons, 
or 

(30 X 30 X 3-i4i6 X 72) -f- 231 = 881 

The capacity of a cylindrical tank tapering from 5 ft. in diameter 
at the bottom to 3 ft. in diameter at the top, and 5 ft. deep, will be 
found as follows: 

(5 + 3) -^ 2 = 4 ft. = average diameter, 

2 X 2 X 3-Hi6 X 5 X 7.476 = 470 gallons, 
or 

24 X 24 X 3- J 4i6 X 60 -r- 231 = 470 



PROTECTION OF SUPPLY PIPES 321 

PROTECTION OF SUPPLY PIPES AGAINST FREEZING 

Many attempts along- various lines have been made to solve the 
question of protection of water pipes against freezing, with greater 
or less satisfactory results. 

In some cases the covering of supply pipes with prepared cov- 
ering, such as used in steam and hot-water heating, is effectual, 
although its use is not so satisfactory as might be supposed. If the 
pipe is exposed to extreme cold, as would be the case if run in an 
unprotected place out of doors, there is possibly no more effective 
protection than that afforded by the following: 

Around the pipe, and about one inch from it, build a wooden 
box of the length of the exposed section, and outside this box con- 
struct a second box, with an inch air space between the two. Four 
or five of these boxes will afford ample protection for a pipe, although 
more of them can be used to great advantage if the exposure is 
extreme. 

The boxing may be of rough boarding if it is desired to save 
expense. It is not the boarding that affords the protection to the 
pipe so much as the air confined between the several boxes. 

Pipes laid at the bottom of streams are generally well protected, 
and also when laid in turfed ground they are very much better pro- 
tected than when laid in uncovered ground. Another method that is 
often effective is to lay the pipe in trenches surrounded with hot 
horse manure. The heat of the manure will keep the frost from 
affecting the piping. The same method may be followed above 
ground by running the pipe in a box filled with manure. 

The manure must be renewed usually each year, however, as it 
loses its strength in that time, then affording no protection. Saw- 
dust cannot usually be depended upon as a protection for piping, as 
it absorbs moisture. 

Hair felt closely packed about an exposed pipe acts as a strong 
protection. The latter material is of special value in pipes inside 
the house when passing through partitions or floors, the spaces be- 
tween which are cold. 



Plate LI 

WATER SUPPLY FOR COUNTRY HOUSE- 
DOUBLE-ACTING RAM— CISTERN 
FILTERS— HOT-WATER SUPPLY 



l! 



WATER SUPPLY FOR COUNTRY HOUSE 

In the foregoing pages reference has been made to several of 
the features shown in Plate 51. This illustration gives a general 
system of supply, showing several details of value. 



DOUBLE-ACTING RAM 

The double-acting ram is of very great value under certain cir- 
cumstances; for instance, when a limited supply of pure spring water 
is obtainable, but in too small quantity to operate the ram continu- 
ously. Under these conditions, any other water supply of inferior 
quality from a pond, lake, or stream properly located may be em- 
ployed to operate the ram, its arrangement and connections being 
such that nothing but the pure water supply will be pumped. This 
machine is of comparatively recent origin and is very effective 

CISTERN FILTERS 

One of the chief features of Plate 51 is the work in connection 
with the cistern. 

The collection and storage of rain water is very necessary as a 
means of providing a supply of soft water when the natural water 
supply is hard. Under such conditions it is sometimes necessary to 
use rain water for drinking purposes. 

The storage of drinking water in tanks and cisterns is not advis- 
able if better methods can be employed, but is sometimes necessary, 
arid when this is the case too much attention cannot be given to pro- 
viding the best possible conditions. To place the water coming from 
the roof in proper condition for drinking purposes it is necessary to 
filter it. 

If rain water could be stored without taking up any impurities, 
it would be the purest water supply that could be obtained, but in 
falling upon the roof it not only carries with it such things as twigs, 
pieces of slate, etc., but also things which are much worse, such as 
decaying vegetable matter, bird manure, and dust and dirt which 
contain all kinds of impurities. 

32s 



326 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

These things not only make the water impure, but discolor it 
to some extent, and cause it to give out foul odors. 

It will thus be seen that before being pumped from the cistern 
into the house tank the water should be purified, and filtration is the 
easiest and most practicable way of performing the work. There 
are many forms of cistern filters. 

A simple form of filter may be built in the following manner. 
Only a small part of the cistern is needed for the filter chamber, 
which should be of brick, extending from the wall about two feet 
into the cistern. It is practically a brick box built up from the bot- 
tom of the cistern about two or three feet, the top of the box also 
being bricked over. The bottom of this brick box should have a 
thick covering of gravel or broken stone and charcoal. Narrow open- 
ings should be provided at the bottom of the brick box at different 
points around it in order to allow the water of the cistern to pass 
through into the filter, and at these openings coarse wire cloth should 
be used to prevent the gravel and charcoal from working out. The 
top surface of the filtering material should also be protected in the 
same manner. 

The brick box should not be covered with any coating to make 
it water-tight. 

The suction pipe of the pump should end inside the filter box, 
resting firmly above the filtering material. It is also-well to provide 
an air pipe of y*- or ^4 -in. pipe, connecting into the filtering chamber 
and ending above the surface of the water in the cistern. The cis- 
tern water will filter through the filtering material and also through 
the bricks of the filter chamber, and when pumped from the latter to 
the house tank will be entirely suitable for drinking purposes. Porous 
stone and brick, by the way, make excellent filtering materials, as 
they are filled with minute air spaces, which is a necessary feature 
in any material that is to be used for filtering purposes. After hav- 
ing been in use for two or three years the filter chamber should be 
torn out, the filtering material renewed, and the bricks thoroughly 
cleaned before being used again, or new ones used, which would be 
better, as the pores of the bricks will have become more or less filled 
in this length of time. If the old bricks are to be used again, it will 
be a good plan to bake them, thus destroying any impurities that may 
exist in them. 

While the filtering arrangement just described is efficient and 



CISTERN FILTERS 327 

satisfactory, it is an excellent idea in such work as this to prevent as 
far as possible the entrance of impurities into the cistern in the first 
place, and to filter the water also in some manner similar to the 
method described. 

A sort of catch basin, such as shown in Plate 51, three or four 
feet in each of its three dimensions, or three or four feet in diameter 
and of about the same depth, if built in cylindrical form, may be used 
to hold back from the cistern much of the coarser substances, and 
thus prevent the cistern filter from becoming so quickly clogged. 

This catch basin may be built against the cistern or separate 
from it, its top reaching to the surface of the ground and provided 
with a removable cover. A cast-iron grating should cover the full 
area of the catch basin, and be set securely a few inches from the 
bottom of it. Above the grating, and reaching nearly to the top of 
the catch basin, gravel or broken stone should be filled in, and from 
the upper part of this material an outlet of the same size as the con- 
ductor pipe is carried into the cistern. The conductor pipe from the 
roof is carried into the catch basin to a point below the iron grating. 
Therefore, to reach the cistern, all rain water must pass through the 
broken stone or gravel, which is easily renewed when necessary. It 
should be borne in mind that this catch basin should be used only as 
an aid to the cistern filter. 

Another very good and simple form of cistern filter can be con- 
structed as shown in Plate 51. 

In the center of the cistern several lengths of large-size porous 
tile should be securely joined together, the bottom being cemented 
to the bottom of the cistern. The tile should be completely filled with 
broken stone and charcoal, and the suction pipe of the pump con- 
nected to the top. At the bottom of the tile, holes should be drilled 
through it in sufficient number to allow water to pass into the filter- 
ing material. The cistern water also filters through the tile. The 
connection of the suction pipe into. the filter should be so made that 
it cannot break the tiling or the cement joints, and thus destroy its 
effectiveness by allowing unfiltered water to be pumped. 

If desirable, this same filter may be laid on the bottom of the cis- 
tern, with the filtering holes in the end opposite the suction-pipe 
connection. 

In Plate 51 the filtered cistern water is pumped into the 
attic storage tank, and an overflow from the latter run to the 



328 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

cistern. From the cistern an overflow is. run to the surface of the 
ground. 

It is necessary always to provide an unfailing supply of water, 
and the use of the double-acting ram, together with the use of rain 
water, present means of doing this. If it is desired to use cistern 
water at the pump, a faucet devised for this purpose may be attached 
to the pump at the bottom of the air chamber. 

In the use of tanks for rain-water storage, it is better to use tin- 
lined sheet copper for the lining than sheet lead, as rain water will 
often attack lead. It is a fact that a pure water will more often 
attack metals than a water containing a large amount of impurities. 

HOT-WATER SUPPLY 

In connection with the supply work shown in Plate 51 there is 
also shown a system of hot-water supply, in which the kitchen-range 
boiler is heated both by the kitchen range and by a coil in the fur- 
nace. This is a very common practice not only in country work, but 
in the city also. Very often a small bath-room radiator may be 
heated from the hot-water supply. 

The hot-water supply system is represented by the single heavy 
lines. There are several methods of heating a range boiler from the 
kitchen range and another heating source below it, and the method 
shown is probably the most satisfactory. It will be noted that in this 
method the course of the circulation of hot water is continuous, the 
hot water from the furnace passing through the range water-front, 
thence to the boiler and to the fixtures, and, when it has cooled, 
returning to the furnace coil. Two lines of circulation are shown, 
each being brought together on the return. 

The use of circulating pipes, if properly installed, insures a con- 
stant supply of hot water close to the fixtures supplied, and naturally 
obviates the necessity of drawing off a long line of cold water before 
the water will run hot, as must be done in work unprovided with 
circulation. 

This saving in the use of water is a matter of importance wher- 
ever water is metered or limited in amount. 

Whenever the house supply is from an attic tank the hot-water 
supply must be under tank pressure, in the use of which system an 
expansion pipe is necessary. 



Plate LII 

THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES 
BY ELECTRICITY 






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THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES BY 

ELECTRICITY 

A succession of severe winters has had the result of establish- 
ing the practice of thawing frozen water mains and service pipes by- 
means of electricity. In some sections during the winter of 1903-4 
water mains 7 ft. underground were frozen, and the old method of 
digging up the frozen ground to expose the affected pipe was found 
to be a matter of great expense, especially as several thousands of 
freeze-ups occurred in some of the large cities. 

The principle upon which this method works is the fact that an 
electric current, in passing through a conductor which offers consid- 
erable resistance to its passage, develops a great amount of heat 
in the conducting material. 

In passing an electric current through a frozen water pipe there 
is sufficient resistance encountered to generate the heat necessary to 
thaw the pipe. The ice itself offers great resistance, it being a poor 
conductor, while the pipe, especially at its joints, offers a consider- 
able amount also. With this principle to work upon, the thawing of 
pipes may be accomplished if the means are at hand for providing 
a large enough current, in this work the securing of a large amount 
of current being of most importance, just as in the use of water for 
some purposes, the volume which may be obtained is of greater im- 
portance than the pressure which it is under. 

Many different and successful methods have been made use of 
in supplying the electric surrent. In sizable towns and in cities, the 
most convenient source of electricity for this work has been the 
electric-lighting mains, most of which are now alternating circuits. 

In employing alternating currents it is necessary to use what is 
known as a step-down transformer. Such a device consists essentially 
of two coils of wire adjacent to each other, but not connected together 
in any way. The ends of the primary coil are connected to the light- 
ing mains, and the passage of the current through this coil induces 
a current in the secondary coil. The step-down transformer takes a 
current from the mains at a high voltage or pressure and delivers 
it through the secondary coil under a much lower voltage. 

331 



332 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Currents under various voltages, up to several thousand in 
amount, have been used on the primary and transformed generally 
to about 50 volts on the secondary. 

An electric circuit is made up of three factors — current in 
amperes, voltage, and resistance. As the resistance increases, the 
amount of current decreases, and vice versa. 

The thawing apparatus is generally placed upon a wagon or 
sled, and consists principally of the transformer and what is known 
as a water resistance. The latter is usually in the form of a small 
barrel filled with salted water, in which two copper plates are im- 
mersed, each being connected to a wire. 

After this apparatus has been taken to the place where the 
thawing is to be done, the primary leads are connected to the electric- 
light mains, proper fuses and an ammeter for measuring the current 
being provided. 

The secondary leads or connections are then attached at either 
end of the frozen section, and the water resistance placed at any 
point in the secondary circuit, with the copper plates far apart. 
When in this position the resistance is great, and the amount of cur- 
rent small. When it is seen that a larger amount of current is 
necessary, it may be obtained by reducing the resistance, that is, by 
moving the plates closer together. Various amounts of current are 
required, depending on the conditions of each individual piece of 
work. For service pipes, which are naturally more often affected 
than the mains, currents of an amount between 200 and 300 amperes 
are generally used. 

Long leads are used on this work, and when possible the con- 
nection may be made most easily by attaching one of the secondary 
leads to the nearest hydrant, and the other to a faucet or to the 
piping inside the house, the current thus being allowed to pass 
through the frozen section. Attention should be given to making 
as good connections to the hydrant and faucet as possible, as a poor 
contact at either place may result in burning the metal. 

When there is no hydrant conveniently located, connection may 
be made to the piping of an adjacent house, and if the latter is too 
far distant it sometimes becomes necessary to dig down to the pipe 
to make the connection. 

When the service pipes of two or more adjacent houses are to 
be thawed, the several water services may be connected in series, 



THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES 333 

and a single application of the current answer for thawing all of 
them. 

By using long secondary leads, frozen service pipes of several 
houses may often be thawed without changing the primary connec- 
tions to the lighting mains. 

So universal has the practice become of thawing frozen mains 
and service pipes by electricity, that apparatus designed especially 
for such work may now be procured of manufacturers of electrical 
apparatus. 

In some cases, where it was impossible to use lighting or power 
circuits, portable outfits have been used in this work, consisting of 
a steam or gas engine connected to an electric generator. Storage 
batteries have also been made use of. The time used in thawing pipes 
depends so largely on conditions, size of pipe, length of frozen sec- 
tion, amount of current available, etc., that it is difficult to make any 
estimate of it. Under favorable conditions, however, service pipes 
of different sizes have been thawed out in from ten to twenty min- 
utes, and long lines of water mains, as large as 10 in. in size, in two 
or three hours. 

The plumber, being ordinarily unacquainted with electrical work, 
should always seek the advice or the services of competent electricians 
before attempting this class of work, as errors in connections on his 
part might result seriously. 

The workman inexperienced in electrical work might easily 
make a mistake which would not only result in considerable dam- 
age to apparatus, but which might also afreet the lighting circuit to 
such an extent as to render it useless until repaired. In addition, 
there is the danger of serious or fatal injury to the workman. 

The matter of caring for frozen mains and services has in many 
cities been taken over by the city water department, the thawing 
operations being performed by them, in combination with the electric- 
lighting companies. This would appear to be by far the best method 
under the circumstances. 



Plate LIII 
DOUBLE BOILERS 



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DOUBLE BOILERS 

While the principle of the double boiler is simple and its con- 
nections straightforward, there are comparatively few who under- 
stand the manner in which it should be installed. The double boiler 
is used in city buildings of such height that the water under city 
pressure will not at all times reach the upper floors. 

It consists of two boilers, one inside the other, the outer boiler 
being connected in the usual manner with the heater, and the inner 
boiler receiving its heat from the hot water in the boiler which 
surrounds it. 

This form of boiler is much used in large residences, and often 
in apartment buildings. 

In most of the largest buildings, however, where very large 
amounts of hot water are required, the water is pumped into the 
house tank, and the entire hot-water supply for the building deliv- 
ered under tank pressure. 

The outer boiler is supplied by city pressure, while the inner 
boiler is under tank pressure. The lower floors, which can be reached 
by city pressure, are supplied from the outer boiler, and the upper 
floors, which cannot be reached by city pressure, are supplied from 
the inner boiler. The connections for the double boiler are to be 
seen in Fig. A, Plate 53. 

The hot-water supply line from each boiler should be provided 
with an expansion pipe taken from the high point on the line and 
emptying over the house tank. 

The supply to the latter is delivered by a pump or water lift. 
From the tank an overflow should be carried, generally into some 
open fixture which has a sufficiently large waste to insure the passage 
of all overflow water that may enter it. A tell-tale pipe should also 
be run from the tank to a fixture conveniently located, so that the 
pump operator may be warned when the tank has been sufficiently 
filled. Beneath the house tank a drip pan should be provided to col- 
lect any leakage that may come from the tank, and from this pan a 
drip pipe delivers such leakage into some open fixture. 

337 



338 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In the event of a breakdown of the pump, or from other cause, 
there is always danger that the house tank may lose its supply. If 
this condition should continue for some time, it might result in dan- 
ger to the inner boiler, to guard against which a connection is made 
from the pressure supply to the outer boiler, into the tank supply to 
the inner boiler, a check valve, C, being used on this connection. 
When the system is working normally the check valve remains closed, 
owing to the pressure of the tank supply, but when this is withdrawn, 
as would happen after a time if the pump were not in operation, the 
street pressure will open the check valve, and thus keep the inner 
boiler supplied with water. A check valve, B, prevents the siphon- 
age of the contents of the outer boiler in the case of a break in the 
service pipe. It is the use of this check valve that necessitates the 
use of an expansion pipe on the hot-water supply from the outer 
boiler, the check valve cutting off the natural means of expansion. 

The valves A and D control the use of these two lines. If cir- 
culating pipes are used, as they should be on such work as this, the 
tank circulating pipe should connect into the return of the inner 
boiler, and the pressure circulating pipe should connect into the 
return to the heater. 

Special attention should be given to properly draining the double 
boiler. If the inner boiler is drawn off first, there may be danger 
of collapsing it, due to the creation of a partial vacuum inside it and 
street pressure outside of it. This danger is eliminated by arrang- 
ing the draw-off in such a way that the outer boiler must be drawn 
off first or both boilers drained at the same time. This is accom- 
plished by the proper placing of valves, as shown in Plate 53, Fig. A. 

CUT-OFFS 

Under some conditions street pressure will not at all times of 
the day raise water to the highest floor which is intended to be sup- 
plied by city pressure. It then becomes necessary to use a device, 
known as a cut-off, by which tank pressure may be supplied to the 
floor. Fig. B shows the simplest form. 

The two cold-water pressures are connected together, also the 
two hot-water pressures. 

By opening the two upper valves and closing the two lower ones 
the floor may be provided with tank pressure, and vice versa. The 



HEADERS 339 

objection to the use of this crude form of cut-off is that confusion 
may result from the use of valves. 

In Fig. C a patented form of cut-off is shown, in which this 
trouble is not present. By throwing the lever up or down either 
tank or street pressure is turned on. 



HEADERS 

In large hot-water supply systems the cold-water lines connect 
into a header, the hot-water lines into another, and the circulation 
pipes into another. 

This makes the work very systematic and easily cared for. 
Fig. D shows the general arrangement of a header, with its branches, 
each supplied with a shut-off, and each branch also provided with 
a drip connecting into a main drip, the latter emptying into an open 
fixture. 

The same general arrangement of headers, branches, drips, 
valves, etc., may be, and often is, employed to great advantage in 
connection with the hot- and cold-water supply of a residence. 

In connection with high-grade residence work, a very neat and 
artistic piece of work can be performed on these headers by using 
polished brass pipe and fittings, and additional neatness in appear- 
ance may be obtained by bending the pipes at changes in direction, 
instead of performing the work with fittings. Better results can also 
be obtained from this method for the reason that there is less fric- 
tion encountered in smooth bends than in bends made with fittings. 

The employment of these methods is almost a necessity on large 
work, as in such work the supply piping is of such a complex nature 
that it cannot safely be installed other than in the most systematic 
manner. 



Plate LIV 

HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE 
BUILDINGS 



//©/- Water Supp/y Plate 54. 

for~ L,ar-ge Bui/dings 



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HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS 

In the supplying of hot water for large buildings the boiler is 
generally of the horizontal style, hung by wrought-iron hangers 
from the cellar timbers, although vertical boilers are sometimes used. 
The source of heat for such boilers is generally a special tank heater. 
Live and exhaust steam are also much used by means of steam coils 
placed inside the boiler. A combination often used to advantage 
includes both tank heater and steam coils, the heater being used dur- 
ing the summer and the coils during the winter season, when the 
heating plant of the building is in operation. The use of the tank 
heater and steam coil is seen in Fig. D, Plate 54. 

In addition, special heating devices or auxiliaries are used in 
this work, one of them, known as the P. P. Heater, being shown 
connected to the boiler in Fig. E, and a sectional view of the same 
in Fig. F, Plate 54. As seen from the latter, the device consists 
essentially of three pipes, one inside the other. Cold water is con- 
ducted through the innermost pipe, from which it passes into the 
pipe or tube next outside, this pipe being closed at its end. 

Steam is conveyed into the space between the middle pipe and 
the outer one, thus entirely surrounding the cold water that enters. 

The flow connection is made to the middle pipe, also the draw- 
off connection. It is claimed that the heating of water by means of 
this heater is very rapid, and that even in the form of steam vapor 
it will heat the water more rapidly and in greater quantity than it 
can be heated by a water front with a hot fire. 

The heater may be connected with the steam piping of the 
building, as shown in Fig. E. 

The heater is made in several sizes, ranging from the kitchen- 
boiler size to sizes suitable for large work. The size of hot-water 
boilers naturally depends on the character and use of the building, 
the number of apartments, and number of fixtures supplied with hot 
water. In the case of apartment buildings it is generally a compara- 
tively simple matter to approximate the boiler capacity necessary, 
but in the case of many buildings, experience and judgment are 
necessary in arriving at a proper size. 

343 



344 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 



A very common method, and one that is ordinarily a safe one 
to follow, is to estimate about 20 gallons of boiler capacity for each 
full set of fixtures that would commonly require hot water in an 
apartment. These fixtures would include the kitchen sink, wash 
trays, bath tub, and lavatory. If any of these fixtures are omitted, 
or others are added, a due allowance may be made. 

Reckoning on this basis, the following table shows the boiler 
capacity necessary for different numbers of apartments, and the 
standard sizes of boilers having the respective capacities. 

TABLE OF HOT-WATER BOILER CAPACITIES 
No. of Apartments Capacity of Boiler Size of Boiler 

4 100 gals. 



6. 

8. 
10. 
12. 
16. 
20. 
24. 

36- 



120 
180 

215 
250 

365 
430 

575 
720 



22" X 


60" 


24" X 


60" 


30" X 


60" 


30" X 


72" 


30" X 


84" 


36" X 


84" 


42" x 


J2" 


42" X 


96" 



42" X 120' 



Another table which will be found of value is* the following, 
which shows the number and size of steam coils necessary for the 
several sizes of hot-water boilers specified in the foregoing table. 



TABLE OF STEAM COILS FOR HOT-WATER BOILERS 

Capacity of Boiler Size and Number of Coils 

100 to 120 gals 4 i-in. pipes. 

180 " 215 " 6 i-in. 

250^365 " 6 iK-in. " 

43o"575 " 4 1/2-in. " 

720 " 6 13^-in. " 

In Figs. A, B, and C, of Plate 54, are shown three different 
methods of installing large hot-water supply systems. 

Of the three systems, probably that shown in Fig. A is least 
satisfactory, for the reason that the supply at different points is less 
evenly heated than in the case of the other two systems. For 



HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS 345 



instance, the hot-water branches taken out of the return will not 
deliver such hot water as those on the flow line. However, the choice 
of a hot-water supply system must often depend upon the character 
and construction of the building to be supplied. All things being 
equal, the overhead system shown in Fig. C will probably do as sat- 
isfactory work as any of the others shown, although the system in 
Fig. B is an excellent one. The latter should be provided at its high 
point with an air vent, while the former needs none. 



Plate LV 



AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER 

TANKS 



Auhomohc C°nhr*l 

<^f //©/* Water Tanks 



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AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER TANKS 

On large work it is essential to satisfactory service to provide 
automatic control for the hot-water tank. On smaller work, also, 
automatic control may be used to advantage. When the supply 
system is under the attention of a painstaking attendant the neces- 
sity of automatic regulation is not so great, but in general constant 
attention to the necessary requirements cannot be depended upon, in 
which case control of the temperature of the hot-water supply by 
automatic means avoids all trouble. 

There are several excellent systems of regulation now on the 
market, two of which are shown in the several illustrations of Plate 
55. Fig. A represents a sectional view of one of these regulators 
for use in connection with boilers heated by kitchen range or special 
tank heater. Fig. B shows this regulator in use in connection with 
a boiler heated by tank heater. The regulator should always be con- 
nected to the flow pipe, and may be in either a horizontal or vertical 
position. In using this regulator, the part B is filled with water 
through the opening D, which is closed by means of a plug. About 
a cupful of water should be drawn out through a small tube, and 
this liquid replaced by an equivalent amount of gasoline. 

The hot water of the flow pipe which passes through C, C, heats 
the contents of B to the temperature of the hot water itself. 

Gasoline has a somewhat lower boiling point than water, and 
will boil just before the water in B and C, C, reaches the boiling 
point. The gasoline in boiling exerts a pressure which is trans- 
mitted through A to a. diaphragm, which in turn, by means of a 
lever, operates the chain which will close the draught damper and 
open the check damper. When the temperature of the water has 
dropped sufficiently, the diaphragm will react, opening the draught 
damper and closing the check. 

The regulator may be set at any convenient point in the flow 
pipe, the only requirement being that it be set so that the plug D 
shall be at the top, in order that it may be filled. 

Fig. C shows the regulation of live and exhaust steam to the 
steam coils when the boiler is to be heated in this way. 

349 



350 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

The regulator is connected into the end of the boiler and about 
three-quarters of the distance up from the bottom. This regulator 
should be set horizontally, with the tube running into the boiler. A 
diaphragm steam valve is placed on the steam-supply pipe, at a point 
between the boiler and the live-steam connection, in order to control 
both live and exhaust steam. City pressure is connected to the regu- 
lator, and thence to the steam valve. Before reaching the regulator 
the water supply is reduced to the proper pressure by a filter. As 
the temperature of the tank water rises, the expansion of the tube 
inside the boiler operates the regulator, which allows the water pres- 
sure to reach and close the steam valve, thus shutting off the supply 
of exhaust steam to the coil. 

When the water cools, the regulator acts in an opposite man- 
ner, the city pressure is shut off, and the water carried away from 
the steam valve through the waste. 

On the live-steam connection the regulating valve is adjusted 
to open at a lower temperature than that usually carried in the 
exhaust-steam pipe. Thus, when the latter falls below its normal 
point, live steam is admitted through the steam valve. 

If a tank heater is also connected to a boiler thus supplied, the 
regulator shown in Fig. B may be used in conjunction with the 
regulating apparatus of Fig. C. 

The regulator of Fig. D is of another make, but working along 
similar lines to the regulator of Fig. C. By means of this regulator 
any desired temperature of the water may be obtained by moving 
the pointer toward " cooler " or " warmer." 

By means of a diaphragm similar to that shown in Fig. B, this 
regulator can be made to control the temperature of hot-water tanks 
heated by tank heaters. 



Plate LVI 

THE THREE-PIPE SYSTEM OF SUPPLY 



Three - Pipe 

Sysfem 
of Sujbb/y 



P/ahe 56. 



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Suction J 
from Cisferzz 



THE THREE-PIPE SYSTEM OF SUPPLY 

In many sections of the country, owing to the nature of the soil 
through which the water supply flows, water supplied for domestic 
purposes is exceedingly hard, and therefore naturally presents a most 
difficult problem for the community to solve. It does not concern the 
supply for drinking purposes, for the flushing of water closets, and for 
certain other uses, but hard water is entirely unsatisfactory for toilet 
use, for washing clothes, the washing of dishes, etc. Furthermore, 
while hot water that is hard would be objectionable for many uses, the 
heating of hard water is also attended by a very great annoyance in 
the rapid filling of the water front and range connections with a deposit 
of lime, making their frequent renewal a matter of much expense and 
inconvenience. 

Under these conditions, a system of hot and cold water supply 
known as the three-pipe system, may be used to very great advantage. 
The general features of this system may be observed in Plate 56. 

In the installation of the three-pipe system, three lines of supply 
are provided to such fixtures as sinks, lavatories and wash trays, where 
hard cold water may be required for drinking or rinsing purposes. 
From the three bibbs at these fixtures may be drawn soft cold water, 
hard cold water, and soft hot water. At baths hot and cold soft water 
may be drawn, and of course water closets are provided with hard cold 
water only. 

It will be understood that in places where the natural supply is 
hard, any supply of soft water that may be obtained must be used as 
economically as possible. 

The system is simple in construction, and not expensive to install, 
although costing somewhat more than the common system. The street 
supply is piped direct to the pump, and from the pump direct to the 
fixtures which are to be provided with hard water. When hard water 
is drawn at any of these fixtures, the street supply passes through the 
pump, serving also to operate the pump, thereby causing the latter to 
draw soft water from the cistern and deliver it to the attic tank. 

353 



354 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

From the soft-water tank in the attic, a supply of soft water is piped 
down to those fixtures requiring this kind of water, and a branch taken 
to supply the range boiler. Thus nothing but soft water passes through 
the boiler, water front and connections. From the boiler, hot water 
is delivered to fixtures in the ordinary manner. 

It is necessary to provide for a supply of hot hard water, in the 
event that the supply of cistern water fails. This is done by means 
of the connections and valves at the pump. When there is a supply 
of soft water available, valves A and B are closed, and valve C open. 
When the soft-water supply gives out, and hard water must of necessity 
be used for all purposes, all that is required is to open valve B, which 
will allow city water to fill the entire system, including the boiler. 

When the cistern is empty, and it is required to use only hard cold 
water, valve B should remain closed, also valve C, and valve A opened. 
This will allow city water to enter the cold-water piping, without pass- 
ing through the pump. 

The attic tank should have an overflow pipe, and if economy in 
the use of soft cistern water is to be observed, the pipe should lead back 
to the cistern, in order that the overflow water may not be lost. Instead 
of running as shown in our illustration, the overflow may discharge 
onto the roof, and from this point flow back to the cistern. 

If a supply for sprinkling or other such purpose is to be provided, 
connection should be made on the street side of the -connection to the 
pump, as at X, so that sprinkling may not keep the pump operating. 









Plate LVII 

THE SOFTENING OF HARD WATER FOR 
DOMESTIC PURPOSES 



P/ofe 57 



Wafer Softener 

f~o Rrei/enf 
/ncrusfation of 
lA/af-er Fronf-^s.ef-c 




<~ Water Softener 



Compos^ 

^fg? JBrj'eJs. ' 
Scraztr C=s=h •) 







fig. C. - Defaii of 
l/voier Softener 

J3oi2er <5upjo2y 

Wafer ^ 

Soffeizar <S 

w=±±M — »* 



7& 



Wafer 



<L 




fig. B. 



THE SOFTENING OF HARD WATER FOR DOMESTIC 

PURPOSES 

In the consideration of the three-pipe system, under Plate 56, a 
method was described for overcoming the incrustation of water fronts 
and range connections, incident to the use of hard water, by means of 
a separate storage of soft water, which would generally be rain water 
collected in cisterns. 

For various reasons, such as an insufficient supply of rain water, 
this method may not always be satisfactory, and we believe that the 
following method will often be found preferable. We allude to the 
use of a water-softening device, several of which have been introduced, 
designed for use in connection with domestic water supplies. 

The construction of a water-softening device of this type, and its 
application, are shown in Plate 57. In Fig. A the device is shown con- 
nected to the return pipe of the range connection, which is the ordinary 
practice, although, as shown in Fig. B, it may be connected to the boiler 
supply. If desirable in any case to soften hot water, it may be con- 
nected to the hot water piping with equally good results. 

The softening is accomplished in a very simple manner, by passing 
the hard water over a "Kompost" brick, a water-softening composition 
which converts the sulphates or carbonates in the water into phosphates. 
As shown in Fig. C, the cylindrical "Kompost" brick is contained in 
a basket, and this is placed in the feed cylinder of the device. As the 
water flows about this brick, after a time it wears away, and may be 
easily replaced with a new brick. Following are instructions for using 
the water softener : 

After it has been connected, and water turned on, hot water faucets 
should be opened to allow all grease to be drawn out of the system. 
The two valves should then be turned off, the drain cock opened, the 
screw cover removed, and the basket with its brick, dropped into the 
chamber. The cover is then replaced, and the valves opened not more 
than one-quarter turn, the water softener then being ready for use. 

As long as any of the softening composition remains in the cham- 
ber, all water passing through it will be thoroughly softened, and tur- 

357 



358 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

bid water clarified. The composition used is of a mineral nature, con- 
taining nothing that is in any way harmful to health or to fabrics. 

As the water is thoroughly neutralized before it reaches the water 
front, it is clear that incrustation of the water front with lime cannot 
occur in the use of this water-softening device. The deposit of lime 
takes place chiefly in the heating of the water, so that the water front 
and hot-water flow-pipe between range and boiler suffer mostly. 

A feature that deserves special attention is that while the deposit 
of lime fills the water front and connections, thereby reducing the effect- 
ive size of piping, this coating also acts as an insulation, which makes 
the heating of the water much more difficult, and in the use of instan- 
taneous heaters and gas water-heaters especially, greatly increases the 
amount of gas used, and therefore the cost for gas. 

In Fig. B the device is shown connected to the supply to the boiler, 
with a special tank in use for the collection of sediment, which may be 
removed from time to time through the sediment cock. The coating 
of the coils of instantaneous heaters with lime takes place in a com- 
paratively short space of time, and the employment of soft water will 
be found of special advantage in their use. 

The water-softening device which has been described may also 
be used to very great advantage in the case of heating-boilers. As the 
water is softened before entering the boiler, there is no possibility of 
the formation of scale, and if such a device be applied to "a boiler already 
affected by scale, this will gradually disappear, as the soft water dis- 
integrates the lime. 

The water softener has a valuable application also for automo- 
bile garages. Considerable difficulty is occasioned in using hard water 
in automobiles, which soft water would entirely overcome. An excel- 
lent plan for garages, where only cold water is required, consists in the 
use of a range boiler without boiler tube, the boiler being supplied 
through a top opening with soft water. The supply of soft water 
may be piped from one of the top openings to points of delivery. 

It may be stated that generally the attempt to clear water fronts 
of lime deposit by the use of acids is not very successful. A plan which 
seems to work successfully, however, is to make use of two water fronts. 
When one becomes useless, owing to lime deposit, it may be removed 
and replaced with the other water front. By the time the second water 
front is in bad condition, the lime in the first one will have become 
disintegrated by the action of the air. 



Plate LVIII 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND DEVICES IN 
HOT-WATER SUPPLY 



Special Rrob/ems Flof ~ e s& 
in Hot- IA/<3f-er Sup/b/y 



to JTZaiiz^ 




CJzech 



*-U£ 



Jtesfejp 1 cz " 



\\JiGerer \ \ 



eizecJt 



Supply 



rig. A.- To Present Backing of fief 
Wafer info Meters 



5i&d77Z ^^~) 
or J/. TV. * 
Izzlsr 
/Jzrougk 
Shrea f 
Sax 



fig. B. 

<Stsam , , s-i 

oi~J£ot Water Izzlst y 







Running dftrtod Fipz 

" ^JoocJi-jzut CCosiizg 



FoudofJon 
£eru2(5£ 



raw? 



^mo-Jit To Prevenf Freezing of ^Draizz 
or for Thawing Sera ice Pipe 

pig. C. 

~) Detoii of 
^ ffor? - by -pass 
Tee ' 



£ 




a 



U3 



\Hot to dixturts 



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ffg.D. 




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Jtot to 
Tjx- 
furts 



1 
FJoiafrojTz 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND DEVICES IN HOT-WATER 

SUPPLY 

. Probably there is no branch of the plumbing industry which con- 
stantly presents more difficult situations than hot-water supply and 
circulation, and the consideration of some of these problems, with the 
methods applied in their solution, should prove of interest and value. 

The matter of expansion for range boilers introduces problems 
which are sometimes difficult to solve. Under some conditions, for 
instance, hot water from the boiler will back into the cold-water pipe 
supplying the boiler, in which event there is great danger of damage 
to the meter. In overcoming this trouble, recourse has often been made 
to the use of a check valve on the supply pipe, the action of which 
would be to prevent expansion of the boiler in this direction. Expan- 
sion back into the water mains is the natural and necessary outlet for 
excessive pressure in direct pressure boilers, and if such a path is not 
provided, a water front explosion is the common result. The use of 
check valves in this way is by no means uncommon among careless 
or ignorant workmen, and the results are often disastrous both to life 
and to property. 

If such a course is to be followed, it becomes necessary to use a 
safety valve in connection with the check valve, although this does not 
absolutely insure against bad results, as the safety valve may be de- 
fective, or may stick and refuse to operate. Under these conditions, 
the method presented in Fig. A, Plate 58, will be found very useful. 
It consists in the use of a by-pass around the meter, with two check 
valves closing in opposite directions, one on the by-pass and the other 
on the house supply. The latter serves to prevent expansion into the 
meter, and the check valve on the by-pass prevents any flow to the 
house through it, but allows expansion to take place back into the water 
main. 

It will be seen that this arrangement allows all water to pass 
through the meter, while removing the danger to it of damage from 
a back flow from the boiler. 

361 



362 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

In the case of boilers supplied from an attic tank, there is no 
chance of this damage to meters, because of the different nature of the 
supply connections. 

In Fig. B, Plate 58, is shown a method that will be found very 
effective in thawing frozen service pipes, and also in preventing freez- 
ing. As shown, the plan is to encase the service pipe in a second pipe, 
closing the opening of each end of the casing by a lock-nut working 
on a running thread, and closing against a packing. 

At either end of the casing a tee is used. Into the outer tee a pipe 
of small size is connected, one branch rising through the street box, 
and another passing into the cellar through the foundation. By means 
of steam or hot water, entering through either branch, the pipe may be 
thawed whenever it freezes, or it may be kept from freezing. The cas- 
ing is drained through the inner tee, just inside the foundation, and 
should point downward. 

Another problem concerns the trouble experienced in the by-pass- 
ing under certain conditions, of gas-water-heater connections made 
into the top of the boiler. In this by-passing, which is not due to the 
heater itself, cold water draws in and mixes with the hot water at the 
point where the ordinary tee connection is made. This trouble is over- 
come by the use of a fitting known as a non-by-pass tee, which is illus- 
trated in cross section by Fig. C, Plate 58. Fig. D shows the fitting 
connected to a rising line of hot water, and Fig. E to a horizontal line. 

Mixing of cold water with hot water may also occur from other 
causes. For instance, it sometimes happens that the boiler tube is care- 
lessly omitted, or has become so corroded that it breaks off. Either 
of these things will allow cold water to enter the top of the boiler, and 
cause either cold or lukewarm water to be drawn at the fixtures. 

Another subject not generally well understood is the matter of 
air-lock on hot-water piping. 

Air-lock often prevents flow of hot water to fixtures, and it will 
generally be found that when such a state exists, it is in connection 
with a system which has a very low pressure. 

If the air pressure is greater than the water pressure, air-lock 
results, but if the water pressure is the greater, the air-lock will be 
overcome. The trouble seldom occurs in the case of direct pressure 
supplies, owing to the fact that they generally are under sufficient 
pressure to overcome the air. The pressure required to do this amounts 
to about one pound for each two feet of vertical air-lock, and if there 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN HOT-WATER SUPPLY 363 

is a back pressure, the amount of it would have to be added. It is a 
common practice to turn down from the top of the boiler with the hot- 
water pipe, and it is at the point where the turn is made that air-lock 
occurs. This can be overcome in the case of the tank-supply system, 
by taking an expansion pipe from this point, up to and over the tank. 

It may also be done by taking a branch supply to some fixture 
above, from this high point. 

Under certain conditions it may sometimes be very convenient 
to reduce the size of a range boiler without making a change in boilers. 
This may be done effectively by taking the cold-water connection to 
the water front out of the side opening of the boiler, instead of from 
the bottom, and connecting the range flow-pipe at the top. This method 
has the effect of reducing the size of the boiler to that part of it which 
is above the side opening. Such a reduction in size might often be of 
advantage during the warm months, when only the gas water-heater 
is in use, and economy in the use of gas becomes a matter of importance. 

The cold-water connection to the water front, from the side open- 
ing of the boiler, as mentioned above, is a good one for another reason. 
It is preferable to the common connection from the bottom of the boiler, 
for the reason that when the water is taken from this part of the boiler, 
it is free of rust and sediment, and in the use of gas water-heaters, this 
is of special importance, as the presence of sediment will, after a time, 
fill the coils and destroy the effectiveness of the heater. 



Plates LIX, LX, LXI, LXII, LXIII 

SEPTIC TANKS AND METHODS OF 
DISPOSAL FROM SEPTIC TANKS 



Plate LXIV 

PLUMBING FOR GARAGE 



Plate LXV 

CONNECTIONS FOR CONDENSING TANK- 
WASTE CONNECTIONS FOR 
HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS 



Plate LXV I 

CONNECTIONS FOR DRINKING FOUNTAINS 



Plate LXV II 

SPECIAL TYPES OF WATER CLOSETS 






1 M % f\ 







*■•■■.§ 

\ - X 4 P ^ 

7772222222. 




'''. « 






1 : :- 






A Dry We// with Percolating Fi/ter 
for Final Disposal of Sewage from Septic 

Tank r~\ r 



Plate 62 







Oo .' 






Vent 



-Brick or St one 
Laid without 

Cement. 
Deflector 






'0 n ~'n ' 















5^3^.°, ,2- 



WtWZZWWTV 7 !* 7 



Inlet from Sewa^ eSiphon 

Inverted Y s with 
Open Joints 

J 



G* 




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do, 



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v, - , oR^if.^gp^ 










C 3 
9^'o A» o<2>7 3 




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Note: Well should be about 10 ft.deep, and 
not less than 4 ft. in Diameter. 



^3 



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£ a 

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Plate 66 
Connections for 

Drinking Fountains 



J 



W% 



W^ 



c 



J 



^r 



i 



jg^jf^j 



/ 



w^ 



2 



Mote ■■ A Line of 
Drinking Foun- 
tains may also 
discharge into a 
Water- Supplied 
Sink 



FloorDrain 




tz 



Fig. A 

Indirect Waste Connections 
For Line of Drinking Fountains. 




Fig.B 

Direct Waste Connections 
for Line of Drinking Fountains. 



Special Types of 

Water Closets 



PI ate 67 





Fig.C 



INVESTIGATION MADE BY THE ENGLISH 

GOVERNMENT INTO THE USE OF THE 

INTERCEPTING OR MAIN TRAP-- 

DANGER OF SEWER AND DRAIN 

AIR-VENTILATION OF SEWERS 



. 



INVESTIGATION MADE BY THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 

INTO THE USE OF THE INTERCEPTING 

OR MAIN TRAP 

INVESTIGATION CONCERNING SEWER AND DRAIN AIR AND 
VENTILATION OF SEWERS 

Several years ago the English Government appointed a commis- 
sion of technical experts, to make a thorough and impartial investiga ; 
tion into the use of the intercepting or main trap. 

As might well be expected, the work of the Commission was very 
thorough and extensive; a large number of experiments and tests 
were made, many experts were employed or consulted, and testimony 
was taken from a large number of competent witnesses. 

We wish that every individual having any connection with the 
plumbing trade, or any interest in the general subject of sanitation, 
might have the privilege of reading the report of the Commission. 

Apparently every phase of the subject has been investigated, and 
from every angle. Many of the conclusions reached are contrary to 
popular beliefs, and the fears that people have always held concerning 
the dangers from sewers and drains, are proved by the Commission's 
report to be in reality practically groundless. 

To the author this report has proved one of the most interesting 
and convincing publications he has ever read. Indeed, it has either 
modified or completely changed some of the opinions firmly held by 
him for many years. 

The report did not come to his attention until long after the 
chapter on "The House or Main Trap and Fresh Air Inlet" had been 
written for this book, and in making a revision of the book, he felt 
that the only course to adopt was to rewrite that chapter, making use 
of the later and more accurate information on the subject. On further 
thought, however, he decided to let the chapter stand as originally 
written, as it presents the subject without partiality to either side of 
the question, and will serve to show the general attitude of this 
country toward the subject of the intercepting trap. A note has been 
added at the end of that chapter, however, calling attention to this 

377 



378 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

chapter, which the reader will no doubt read with all the more interest 
for first having read the older one. 

The English report is very concise, and at the same time covers 
so much space that it would be impossible to give here anything but 
those points which are of chief interest and importance, and this we 
will try to do. 

The report is divided into eight parts, and we will take it up 
under the same heads, as follows : 



Part i — Disadvantages of the Intercepting Trap 

Obviously, the purpose of the house draining system and the 
public sewage system is to carry off sewage at such a rapid rate that 
it will not have time to decompose before its final discharge. 

The report finds the chief objection to the intercepting trap to 
be that it acts as an obstacle to the flow of sewage, and therefore 
helps to defeat the primary purpose of the sewage system. 

Numerous experiments with different sizes and styles of inter- 
cepting traps, and with varying flushes, proved that a large propor- 
tion of solids was retained by the trap after each flush, the percentages 
under varying conditions running from 40% to 79%. 

This result means that the use of the trap tends to promote 
decomposition of sewage even before it can reach the sewer. 

It is claimed that this tendency of the intercepting trap is the 
essential cause of the off ensiveness of many sewers, and proof of this 
was given by a city engineer who had proved in practical experience 
that offensive odors through street ventilators could often be over- 
come by thoroughly flushing out the intercepting traps of the neigh- 
borhood. 

Another great objection to the use of the trap is that it may cause 
more or less complete stoppage of the house drain with the consequent 
filling of the drain with sewage. 

Unless stoppage is complete, partial stoppages may repeatedly 
occur, and the existence of such a condition remain altogether un- 
suspected. 

Under the Commission's direction, about 6500 intercepting traps 
were examined in different localities, with the result that 23% were 
either found stopped at the time of examination, or to' have been 






INTERCEPTING TRAP 379 

stopped previously, and in all cases the existence of such conditions 
was unknown to the tenants. 

This condition, as pointed out in the report, shows "the necessity 
of finding an effective remedy if the trap is essential, or of considering 
its abandonment if it is not essential." 

It is shown that in all probability, stoppage of the trap is seldom 
caused by the presence in it of a special obstruction, such as a brush 
or other article, but by the accumulation of solid matter naturally 
present in sewage. 

Experiments with 3-inch traps showed results far superior to 
those obtained from larger sizes, and the statement is made that 
"there appears to be much in favor of a 3-inch trap as compared with 
a 4-inch trap." 

Part 2 — Advantages of the Intercepting Trap - 

"The fundamental advantage claimed for the intercepting trap 
is that it prevents the passage of air from the sewer into the house 
drain, and thus that it prevents the entry of sewer air into the dwelling. 
In this connection, two questions of importance arise; one, whether 
it is necessary to exclude the air of the sewer from the house drain; 
the other, whether, as a matter of fact, the intercepting trap does pre- 
vent the access of sewer air into the house drain." 

Theoretically, "when, from any cause, pressure in the sewer ex- 
ceeds the resistance afforded by the seal, air should pass from the 
sewer into the house drain, in spite of the existence of the trap." 

In practice, however, conditions which theoretically ought to 
compress air in sewers, do not do so, for even unventilated sewers are 
never air-tight. 

Experiments were made with traps provided with an observation 
window, on sewer connections affected by the rise and fall of tides, 
the result of which was, that "there was no sign of pressure on the 
trap until the sewage had risen to such a height in the sewer as to 
submerge the outlet of the sewer connection. Thereafter, with the 
tide still rising, and sewage now rising also in the sewer connection, 
pressure on the seal of the trap became evident, and air from the 
sewer connection bubbled through the water in the trap into the 
house drain. The bubbling of air through the water of the inter- 
cepting trap continued so long as the sewage continued to rise, but 



380 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

afterwards, when, owing to ebb of the tide, the level of the sewage 
fell, air passed in the reverse direction, from the house drain into 
the sewer connection." What makes the above result still more em- 
phatic is the fact that the experiments were made on a sewage system 
having no ventilation. 

"Another important result shown by these experiments was that 
when a trap is forced by air pressure, the water seal, though reduced 
in depth, is not liable to be destroyed." 

Even under severe storm conditions, when it is generally sup- 
posed that great pressure upon trap seals results, it seems unquestion- 
able that air is not forced through them until sewage rises in the 
sewer to such a height that the house sewer entrance is covered. 

The conclusion reached in the Commission's report therefore is 
that "the intercepting trap usually answers its purpose as a barrier 
to the passage of air from the sewer into the house drain." 

Acknowledging, however, that sewer air can be kept out of the 
house drain, the question is whether it is necessary to do this, or 
whether the danger is at all lessened by doing so. 

In the absence of the trap, entrance of sewer air must be through 
defects in the plumbing system, or by being blown or drawn in through 
windows, etc., from roof pipes. 

When the intercepting trap is used, any danger that arose would 
be from drain air, but without the trap it is clear -that the danger 
would come from drain air and from sewer air also. "The problem 
really resolves itself therefore into the question whether there is any 
essential difference between the escape of sewer air plus drain air, and 
drain air only; that is, whether the two together are more objection- 
able or more likely to cause ill-health than drain air alone." 

"The two opposing contentions in regard to the differences be- 
tween drain air and sewer air are, broadly, as follows : On the one 
hand, it is said that as sewage comprises the contributions of drains, 
the air contained in sewers cannot differ esentially from the air con- 
tained in drains. On the other hand, it is contended that sewer air 
usually differs from drain air, first, because sewage, composed though 
it is of the contents of drains, is more subject, under practical condi- 
tions, to changes produced by decomposition, and therefore contains 
dangerous gases; and second, because the air of sewers may contain 
microbes, given off from the sewage, which are capable of causing 
disease, and although, again, sewage microbes in sewer air, if they 



INTERCEPTING TRAP 381 

exist, are derived from the contents of the drains, they may include 
microbes which are not present in the sewage of all drains alike. 
Therefore, it is contended, sewer air may be a means of disseminating 
disease by carrying pathogenic microbes, derived from the sewage of 
one house, to the drain of another house, and thence into the house 
itself." 

Part 3 — Chemistry of Sewer Air 

The Commission had the great advantage of hearing evidence 
concerning the chemistry of sewer air from several of the most 
eminent of English experts. 

"The results obtained by these observers are practically identical, 
and they indicate that in sewers, whether old or new, ventilated or 
unventilated, in which sewage is moving, and is not lying stagnant, the 
air differs but little from that of the atmosphere outside." 

There is one very dangerous gas which may be present in a 
sewer under certain very uncommon circumstances, namely, sulphur- 
etted hydrogen, but it was clearly shown that "the gas would be so 
enormously diluted by the time it reached the interior of the dwelling 
that there would be no danger of sulphuretted hydrogen poisoning." 

The fact that sewer air often has unpleasant odor is true, but it 
is not generally to be considered dangerous to health. One of the 
most eminent witnesses gave as his opinion that "if sewer air pre- 
sented no smell, it would not do the least harm or cause ill-health." 

Each one of the several conclusions arrived at as given above in 
Part 3 is certainly contrary to general opinion, and will no doubt give 
much enlightment on this subject. 

Part 4 — Bacteriology of Sewer Air 

"The bacteriology of sewer air has been the subject of many 
investigations, and in one respect the results obtained have been 
practically uniform, namely, in showing that notwithstanding the im- 
mense number of microbes in sewage, the number to be found in sewer 
air is extremely small. Most investigators are also unanimous that 
the number of microbes to be found in sewer air is usually less than 
the number to be found at about the same time in the atmosphere out- 
side the sewer." 

"Many of these investigators have arrived at the conclusion that 
microbes found in sewer air are derived not from the sewage at all, 



■■■ 



382 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

but from the air outside the sewer. They also found that the number 
of microbes in sewer air rose and fell with the number of microbes 
in fresh air; that with increased means of sewer ventilation, the 
number of microbes in sewer air also increased ; and that the number 
of sewer air microbes diminished as the distance from ventilation 
openings into the sewer increased. The only exception to these results 
was obtained in samples of sewer air where more or less splashing of 
sewage was taking place." 

Testimony on scientific investigations showed that even the bac- 
teria in sewer air which may be of intestinal origin, do not come 
from the sewage but from street dust. 

That the number of micro-organisms in sewer air is extremely 
small, "is established not only in the case of good sewers and those 
which are well ventilated, but also in the case of bad sewers, even 
those containing more or less stagnant sewage with much deposit, and 
those in which ventilation is small or absent. Indeed, it is in the latter 
kind of sewer that the number of sewer air microbes would appear to 
be at a minimum." 

Part 5 — Bacteriology of Drain Air 

Reports made to the Commission of investigations by eminent 
scientists show that "while bacteria of sewage origin are rarely found 
in sewer air, and when found their number is very small ; in drain air, 
on the other hand, not only are sewage microbes frequently found, 
but also, when present, their number may be very large." 

"Although many sewage microbes may be collected on plates, ex- 
posed to drain air, the number of such microbes, when quantitatively 
estimated in relation to measured volumes of the drain air, is very 
small. Again, it is scarcely open to doubt, that the bacterial difference 
between sewer and drain air is accounted for by the splashing which 
occurs in the passage of sewage in a house drain, especially when 
falling from a height or passing through a trap. Indeed, since the 
presence in large numbers, of sewage microbes in drain air has been 
shown to be so directly associated with splashing of sewage in a 
drain, the presumption is strong that if there were no such splashing, 
sewage microbes would be as seldom present in drain air as in sewer 
air. It is also established that the presence of sewage bacteria in drain 
air, as the result of splashing, lasts only a very short time, and that 
they subside with great rapidity." 



INTERCEPTING TRAP 383 

"The practical importance of this essential bacterial difference 
between sewer air and drain air is very great. One of the dangers 
feared from the omission of the intercepting trap is that pathogenic 
microbes, given off from sewage, may be wafted from the air of the 
sewer into the house drain, and thence into the dwelling itself. It is 
obvious, however, that if, as appears usually to be the case, micro- 
organisms of sewage origin are not present in sewer air, there can be 
no wafting of pathogenic microbes from sewer to drain as has been 
apprehended. It is likewise obvious that if sewer air contains, as 
apparently it does contain sometimes, such microbes of sewage origin, 
but so few in number that their presence can be demonstrated only 
with difficulty, the chance that they can be wafted into a house drain 
is very small, while the chance that any of them can pass further and 
enter the dwelling itself must be smaller still. Consequently, even if, 
in any particular instance, sewage microbes can gain admission into 
a house from the air of the drain belonging to it, the possibility that 
such microbes can include any derived from sewer air, if the inter- 
cepting trap is absent, must be very remote." 

"While an intercepting trap may guard a house against a bac- 
terial danger through the sewer, which appears to be indeed almost 
non-existent, it does not exclude the possibility of drain air microbes 
finding their way, from one house to another, through other channels 
involving bacterial danger theoretically not inconsiderable. Indeed, 
it might not unreasonably be argued that in the ventilating shafts of 
house drains lies the principal bacterial danger, and that free ventila- 
tion of house drains which is usually associated with the provision 
of an intercepting trap, is itself calculated to foster the dispersal of 
drain air microbes in the neighborhood of houses. It might even be 
contended, on strictly bacterial grounds, that any ventilation of house 
drains or the provision of any external openings in them is wrong, 
and constitutes a possible danger, since in the absence of air currents, 
brought about by ventilation, such microbes, however numerously sus- 
pended they may be in drain air as the result of splashing, must merely 
subside and remain in the drain itself." 

"We are not suggesting that this is a serious danger, although 
it is possible that it may have some importance in relation to sore 
throat and perhaps other illnesses. It is necessary, however, to make 
quite clear what is the logical outcome of the bacteriological evidence 
that microbes of sewage origin are frequently present in drain air 



384 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

and seldom present in sewer air. That the danger in question is 
probably not serious, seems to be indicated by the fact that, in the 
air of London, microbes of sewage origin can very rarely be detected, 
even after the exposure for many hours, in likely places, of plates 
coated with media specially designed to demonstrate their existence. 
It follows, however, that if danger of this kind through drain air 
is not of importance, the danger that sewage bacteria of sewer air 
may find access into the interior of a dwelling via the drain, owing 
to the absence of intercepting trap, must be still more unimportant." 

Part 6 — General Evidence 

This section of the Commission's report gives quite an amount 
of general evidence concerning the effects of sewer air. 

It is pointed out that workers whose duties demand that a large 
part of their time be spent in sewers, are not less healtlry than other 
classes of workers engaged in ordinary occupations under what are 
ordinarily supposed to be healthier conditions. 

Mention is also made of extensive experiments made with various 
animals, which show that those kept constantly subjected to the 
influence of sewer air over a long period, remained in exactly as 
healthy condition as those living in a pure atmosphere. 

Part 7 — Summary and Conclusions 

This final section of the Commission's report was devoted to a 
summary of its work, with conclusions that were arrived at, as 
follows : 

"We have shown that the disadvantages involved by the use of 
the intercepting trap are substantial and of serious practical im- 
portance, and that as the most important of the effects of these disad- 
vantages are concealed from view, they may remain in existence, quite 
unknown to the householder. On the other hand, the construction of 
house drainage may be simplified by the omission of the intercepting 
trap." 

"The disadvantages of the trap may, to some extent, be obviated. 
Thus the objectionable features of the fresh air inlet may be over- 
come, apparently without detriment, by omitting this contrivance alto- 
gether. The only ventilation which appears to be required on a house 



INTERCEPTING TRAP 3^5 

drain, apart from anti-syphonage pipes, is that which should be. pro- 
vided by an opening at the top of each soil pipe." 

"The tendency of the intercepting trap to retain a considerable 
proportion of the solid matters of the sewage passing through it at 
any given time, and thus to favor blocking of the trap as well as 
putrefaction of the sewage before it reaches the sewer, may be dimin- 
ished, to a great extent, by using a trap of smaller diameter than is 
customary at present." 

"The liability of the trap to become blocked, appears, however, 
to be insuperable, and it is this liability which constitutes its most 
serious disadvantage. The accumulation of sewage in the drain pro- 
duced by the block, and from which many undesirable consequences 
may follow, is not usually evident with ordinary use cf the drain, and 
therefore may long remain undiscovered. This unsuspected blocking of 
the trap and accumulation of sewage appears to be very common." 

"On the other hand, it seems to be established that the trap does 
serve as an effectual barrier to the entry of sewer air into the house 
drain, which is the fundamental advantage claimed for it. It is not 
liable to be forced and rendered useless, as has been supposed to be 
the case, by pressure of air from the sewer. The pressure which is 
liable to force the intercepting trap, is limited to that which arises 
in the sewer connection, after its opening into the sewer has been 
submerged. Furthermore, when an intercepting trap has been forced 
in this way, the water seal is not destroyed." 

"In the absence of the intercepting trap the traps on even an un- 
ventilated house drain are, similarly, not liable to be forced by pressure 
from the sewer; and they are not liable to be forced, even after the 
sewer connection has been submerged, provided the house drain is 
furnished with a proper ventilating shaft. If owing to exceptional 
circumstances, such as the absence, or the blocking, of the ventilating 
shaft of the house drain, pressure is exerted against the traps on the 
, drain, only one trap is liable to be forced, namely, that which has 
the weakest water seal. Air from a drain is not liable, therefore, to 
pass into a dwelling through a trap, unless it so happens that the 
weakest trap of all the traps on the drain belongs to one of the sanitary 
fittings inside the house." 

"The main sources from which air from the sewer may gain entry 
into a house, in the absence of an intercepting trap, are defects in the 
drain and the open top of the soil pipe or ventilating shaft." 



386 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

"The entry of sewer air into the dwelling through defects in the 
drain, may be practically excluded if the house drain is constructed of 
iron pipes." 

"We have collected and carefully considered the chemical evi- 
dence, the bacteriological evidence, the results of recent and exact 
experiments on animals, as well as the general and epidemiological evi- 
dence, in their bearing upon the existence of definite risk to health, 
as a consequence of the access of sewer air into the house drain in the 
absence of the. intercepting trap." 

"It is difficult to summarize this evidence, and it must therefore 
be studied in the body of our report." 

"It is established that the smell of sewer air is only very excep- 
tionally due to sulphuretted hydrogen, contrary to what has been 
supposed, and that this dangerous gas is, usually, not present even 
in minute traces, in the air of sewers." 

"The bacteriological evidence shows that micro-organisms of 
sewage origin are very rarely present in sewer air. On the other hand, 
they may be present in drain air in large numbers. This difference 
is the result of the splashing of sewage which occurs in drains, and 
which does not usually occur in sewers. The effect of any given 
splashing in a drain is of extremely short duration, the bacteria sub- 
siding with great rapidity, but air currents, produced by ventilation, 
may meanwhile, have conveyed these bacteria for "considerable dis- 
tances along the drain or into ventilating shafts of the drain." 

"The bacteriological evidence undoubtedly indicates that the bac- 
terial danger of sewer air is incomparably less than the bacterial 
danger of drain air; and that, therefore, the entry of sewer air into 
a house, is of correspondingly smaller importance, bacterially, than 
the entrance of drain air." 

"Human beings deliberately exposed to the effects of sewer air do 
not appear to be affected in health." 

"The necessity of the intercepting trap, on bacteriological or 
epidemiological grounds, has not, therefore, been established. It ap- 
pears in fact that the characteristic of sewer air which is of practical 
importance is its smell, and that therefore the question as to the neces- 
sity or otherwise of the intercepting trap is narrowed down to the 
issue whether, in any given case, sewer air will be more perceptible 
or less perceptible to the sense of smell, with or without the trap." 

"It is obviously most important that public health authorities 



INTERCEPTING TRAP 387 

should make every effort to secure that both sewers and house drains 
are so designed and constructed that the opportunities of their con- 
tributing smell to the atmosphere shall be reduced in every possible 
way." 

"In ordinary cases, the smell of sewer air is less perceptible, not 
more perceptible, when the intercepting trap is omitted, and chiefly, 
it would appear, because in the absence of the trap opportunity is af- 
forded for sewer air to escape, entirely, at a height above the ground. 
But there are exceptional cases, where the intercepting trap may be 
required, in order to prevent perceptible smell from the escape of 
sewer air from the tops of ventilating shafts of house drains. Sewage 
may be so offensive that the escape of sewer air, even at a height, 
is a perceptible nuisance, so much so that it may be necessary to close 
as many sewer ventilators as possible, whether at the ground level or 
at a height; house drains may be connected with cesspools, flat or 
storage sewers, or with sewers which are old and foul with deposit; 
houses may be built in terraces, one above the other, so that the venti- 
lating shafts of the house drains of one terrace are at or about the 
level of the ground of another terrace; and so forth." 

"As circumstances in this respect will vary in different localities, 
the question whether, in order to prevent nuisance from smell in such 
exceptional cases, the intercepting trap is or is not required in any 
locality, or part of a locality, is one which will need to be considered 
and determined by the local authority and their advisers, in the light 
of local conditions." 

"The importance of the effect which the presence of the intercept- 
ing trap has on the ventilating of sewers, on which much stress has been 
laid, has probably been exaggerated. The free ventilation of sewers 
appears to be unnecessary either for the prevention of pressure of 
sewer air on traps, or for the safety of sewer men, except in the case 
of sewers which are large enough to admit them. Even in such 
sewers, however, it is dangerous to rely on ventilation alone, and 
special precautions should always be taken. Moreover, it is exceed- 
ingly difficult to ensure that sewers are freely ventilated, even when 
the most elaborate measures for this purpose are adopted. On the 
other hand, the prevention of nuisance from smell renders it necessary 
that any openings which may be deemed to be requisite for the ventila- 
tion of sewers should not be at the ground level." 

In the foregoing, only a very small part of the full report of the 



388 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 

Commission is given, and it certainly would repay anyone interested in 
the subject under consideration, to read the entire report. 

The title of the report is as follows: "Report of the Depart- 
mental Committee appointed by the President of the Local Govern- 
ment Board to inquire and report with regard to the use of Intercept- 
ing Traps in House Drains." 

The report may be obtained direct or through any bookseller, 
from Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.C. 



INDEX 



A 



Adjustable slop-sink trap, 49. 
Air admitted to trap seal, 75. 
Air chambers, use of, 212. 
Air, circulation of, in sewers, 102. 

through vent system, 90. 
Air, lifeless, in bath rooms, 144. 
Air-lock caused by double trapping, 78. 

on siphon supply systems, 317. 

on hot-water supply systems, 
362. 

prevented by fresh-air inlet, 104. 
Air pressure for smoke test, 171. 
Air pump to relieve water siphon, 317. 
Air supply for plumbing system, 84. 
Air test, 167, 170. 

objections to, 170. 

pressure for, 170. 
Air valve on hydraulic ram, 312. 
Alum for sand filtration, 220. 
Animal charcoal for filters, 219. 
Apartment buildings, hot-water supply 
for, 211. 

plumbing for, 211, 217. 
Architects' plans, reading and use of, 

358. 
Areas, drainage of, 109. 
Artificial draft for local vents, 125. 
Asphaltum, pipes coated with, 87. 
Atmospheric pressure, amount of, 314. 
Attic storage tank, 287. 
supply for, 287. 
Attic tank, 238. 
Automatic cellar drainer, 112. 
Automatic control of hot-water tanks, 

349- 

Automatic flushing, 245. 

of range water closets, 44. 
of urinals, 257. 
Automatic flush tank, action of, 245. 

construction, location of, etc., 
246. 
Automatic flush tanks for public toilet 
rooms, 234. 



Automatic sewage ejector, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 
Automatic sewage ejector, for public 
sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 
Automatic sewage lift, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Automatic sewage siphons, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Automatic siphon for range water 

closets, 44. 
Automatic sump tank, 280. 

action of, 280. 
Automatic tank regulators, 211. 
Automatically flushed urinals and slop 
sinks, 246. 

B 

Back pressure on trap seals, 74. 
Back pressure, relief of, 84. 
Backs for urinals, 50. 
Back-water valve, use of, ill. 
Bacteria, action of, in filtration, 219. 

action of, in septic tank, 299. 

action of, on sewage, 304. 

in soil, 294. 
Ball-cock floats, 40. 
Ball-cocks, 39. 

requirements of, 40. 
Bar sinks, connection of, 66. 
Basins for lavatories, sizes of, 24. 
Baskets, wire, for roof pipes, 91. 
Bath establishments, construction of 
floors and walls of, 237. 

plumbing for, 237. 



389 



39° 



INDEX 



Bath-room connections, 131, 137, 138, 

143. 149- 
Eath-room fixtures, 139, 150. 

Bath rooms, 131, 137, 143, 149. 

cleanliness of, 131. 
Bath rooms, lighting of, 144. 

tiling of, 139. 

ventilation of, 144. 
Bath traps, 77. 

cleanouts for, 31, 138. 
Bath tub, 31. 

connections for, 31. 

construction of, 31. 

drum trap for, 31, 81, 149. 

sizes of, 31. 

to enamel, 31. 
Bedfordshire lip urinal, 50. 
Bending brass pipe, 202. 
Bends in fresh-air inlet, 104. 
Bends, quarter, for circuit vents, 
188. 

for deep-seal traps, 109. 

use of, 89. 
Bidet, 51. 

connections for, 51. 

mixer for, 51. 

supplies for, 51. 
Blind vent, 157. 
Blow-off from boilers, 66, 372. 
Boilers, double, 337. 

connections for, 338. 

construction of, 337. 

cut-offs for, 338. 

drainage of, 338. 

expansion pipes on, 337. 

purpose of, 337. 

supply for, 337. 

where used, 337. 
Boilers, large horizontal, supporting of, 

343- 
Boilers, large horizontal, use of, 343. 
Boilers, heating, soft water for, 358. 
Boilers hot-water, automatic control of, 

349. 
capacities of, 344. 
heating of, by steam, 343. 
proper size of, 213, 343. 
steam coils for, 344. 
Boilers, range, for residences, 211. 
heating of, 328. 
materials for, 192, 211. 
size of, 211. 
to reduce effective size of, 363. 



Boiler tube, breaking-off of, 362. 
Bone-black for filtering purposes, 219. 
Bowls for lavatories, sizes of, 24. 

patent overflow, 24. 
Branch vents, 84. 

running of, 184. 
Brass and cast-iron pipe connections, 

88. 
Brass and wrought-iron pipe connec- 
tions, 88. 
Brass cleanouts, 162. 
Brass drainage fittings, 202. 
Brass ferrules, use of, 88. 

use of, on Durham system, 272. 

weights and sizes of, 272. 
Brass flap valve, use of, 62. 
Brass floor flange, use of, 119. 
Brass for drainage purposes, 274. 
Brass pipe, joints on, 202. 

to bend, 202. 

use of, 92, 192. 

use of, on waste and vent work, 
201. 

weights of, 202. 
Brass pipe vises, use of, 202. 
Brass pipe wrenches, use of, 202. 
Brass soldering nipples, weights and 

sizes of,' 272. 
Brewery drainage, 62. 
Brick piers to support piping, 95. 
By-pass, 77, 157. 

for water meter, 361. 
By-passing in gas water heaters, 362. 



Capillary action on trap seals, 74. 

Caps for roof pipes, 91. 

Cast iron, action of electrolysis on, 267. 

for drainage purposes, 274. 
Cast-iron and brass pipe connections, 

88. 
Cast-iron and lead pipe connections, 88. 
Cast-iron and wrought-iron pipe con- 
nections, 88. 
Cast-iron pipe, 87. 

coating of, 87, 162. 

connections of wrought-iron pipe 
into, 262. 

for house sewer, 197. 

for wastes, 137. 

joints on, 87. 



INDEX 



39i 



Cast-iron pipe, life of, 264, 265. 

supporting of, 95. 

underground, 162. 

use of, 92. 

weights of, 87. 
Cast-iron sinks, sizes of, 17, 18. 
Catch basin, cellar trap for, ill. 

construction of, 241. 

for cellar drain, in. 

for kitchen waste, 56, .57. 

for rain water, 327. 

for refrigerator rooms, etc., 62 

for stable waste, 241. 

for subsoil drainage, in. 
Caulked joints, 87. 

weights of, 88, 361. 
Cellar bottom, grading of, ill. 

gutters in, ill. 
Cellar drain, no. 

catch basin for, in. 

into house drain, 196. 

trap for, in. 
Cellar drainage, disposal of, 112. 
Cellar drainer, 112. 

action of, 112. 

amount of water raised by, 112. 

height to which it will, raise, 
112. 

location of, 112. 

supply pipes for, 112. 

water pressure for, 112. 
Cements for marble, 24. 

for slate and soapstone, 19. 
Centralizing of plumbing, 143. 
Centrifugal pump for raising sewage, 

277. 
Cesspools, 293. 

banking and turfing of, 295. 

combination tight and leeching, 

293- 295. 
connected to sewers, 293. 
displaced by septic tanks, 299. 
forms of, 293. 
fresh-air inlet of, 294. 
leeching, 293, 294. 
location of, 289, 294. 
manner of entering drains into, 

296. 
prohibited for tenement houses, 

etc., 208. 
rain water into, 2Q5. 
supporting vents from, 96. 
tight, 293, 294. 
trapping of, 294. 



Cesspools, use of, in cities, 296. 

venting of, 285, 294. 
Change in direction of pipes, cleanouts 

at, 164. 
Charcoal, animal, for filters, 219. 
Check valves, use of, 361. 
Child's bath, 33. 

connections of, 33. 
Chilling of main trap seal, 104. 
Chimney connections of local vents, 

127, 156. 
Circuit vents, 187. 

construction of, 187. 

for line of water closets, 242. 

for public toilet rooms, 187, 234. 

quarter bends on, 188. 
Circulation of air in sewers, 102. 

through vent system, 90. 
Circulation of hot water, 328. 
Circulation work, advantages of, 213. 
Cistern filters, 325. 

action of, 326, 327. 

catch basin for, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Cisterns for storing rain water, 288. 

size of, 289. 
Cleanout cover, trap vent through, 82. 
Cleanout joints, 163. 
Cleanout screws, material of, 162. 
Cleanouts, 162. 

brass, 162. 

depending on putty joints, 156. 

end, 162, 163. 

for traps, Jj. 

gaskets for, 163. 

ground joint, 163. 

iron body, 162. 

on bath traps, 31, yy, 138. 

on drainage pipes, 89. 

on drum traps, 164. 

on horse stall connections, 69. 

on house drain, 162. 

on local vent flue connection, 127. 

on main trap, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

on rain leaders, 163. 

on refrigerator wastes, 65. 

on sink waste, 55. 

on slop sinks, 49. 

on traps, location of, 164. 

on traps under floors, yy. 

on vents, 76, 164. 

size of, 163. 

submerged, 82, 83, 164. 

threads for, 163. 



392 



INDEX 



Coating of cast-iron pipe, 87. 

Coils, steam, for hot-water boilers, 

344-. 
Cold-air box, distance of fresh-air inlet 

from, 104. 
Combination sink and wash tray, 

Comfort stations, ventilation of, 127. 
Compressed air for sewage ejectors, 

278. 
Compression system, 220. 
Compression work, 33. 

advantages of, 212. 
Concealed piping, testing of, 167. 
Condensation in vent pipes, 84, 184. 

care of, 89. 

drainage of, 90. 
Condensing tank, use of, 66, t>7 2 - 
Contact filter beds, 302, 305. 
Contagion carried by local vents, 125. 
Continuous venting, 76, 175. 
Continuous venting, advantages of, 175, 
180. 

economy of, 180, 183. 

for apartment houses, 179. 

for groups of fixtures, 176. 

for lines of lavatories, 233. 

for two-floor work, 179. 

for two lines of fixtures, 183. 

from special fittings, 201. 

of lavatories, 23, 176. 

of lines of fixtures, 271. 

of lines of urinals, 256. 

of S trap, 81, 83. 

of water closets, 187. 
Corrosion of drainage pipes, 264. 

vent pipes, 264. 
Cottage house, plumbing for, 191. 
Country house, water supply for, 325. 

hot-water supply for, 328. 
Country plumbing, 285. 
Courts, etc., of tenement houses, drain- 
age of, 208. 
Courtyards, drainage of, 109. 
Cowls for roof pipes, 91. 
Crazing of water closets, 119. 
Cup joints, 88. 
Cut-offs for double boilers, 338. 

D 

Dead end, 155. 
Deep-seal trap, use of, 109. 
for rain leaders, 207. 



Deflector for grease trap, 56. 
Direct-pressure ball-cocks, 40. 
Discharge chamber of the septic tank, 

301. _ 
Domestic filter, construction of, 218. 
Double-acting force pump, 315. 
Double-acting hydraulic ram, 314, 

325- 
Double apartment buildings, plumbing 
for, 217. 

continuous venting for, 179. 
Double boilers, 337. 

connections for, 338. 

construction of, 337. 

cut-offs for, 338. 

drainage of, 338. 

expansion pipes on, 337. 

purpose of, 337. 

supply for, 337. 

where used, 337. 
Double fittings, venting from, 223. 
Double hubs, use of, 89. 
Double-hub pipe, use of, 89. 
Double testing plug, 169. 
Double trapping, 78, in, 156. 
Double T-Y, use of, 89. 
Draft for local vents, 125. 
Drain tile inside cellar, 156. 

for subsoil drains, ill. 
Drainage system, separate, for each 

house, 103. 
Drainer cellar, 112. 
Draw-offs, drainage'from, 66. 
Drinking fountains, 228, 2i73- 

in toilet rooms, 228. 
Drip pan for attic storage tank, 288. 

for refrigerator, 61. 
Drip sink for refrigerator, 61. 
Drips from boilers, 66. 
Driven wells, remarks on, 316. 

system of, 315. 
Drum trap, 81. 

cleanouts on, 164. 

connections for, 81. 

for bath tub, 31, 81, 149. 

for country plumbing, 285. 

for laundry tubs, 19, 82. 

for refrigerator, 61. 

obstructions in, 82, 83. 

serving two or more fixtures, 82. 

siphonage of, 81. 

stoppage of, 82. 

unvented, 81. 






INDEX 



393 



Drum trap, vent of, through cleanout 

cover, 82. 
Durham system, 261. 

advantage of, 97, 262. 
compared with common system, 

261. 
defects of, 262, 263, 264, 265. 
fittings for, 261, 262. 
floor flange for, 120. 
for greenhouses, 263. 
joints on, 261, 262. 
urinals on, 257. 
use of soldering nipples and 

brass ferrules on, 2^2. 
used in high buildings, 263. 
water-closet floor connections 

for, 271, 272. 
work of, 271. 



Evaporation decreased by continuous 
venting, 176. 
of rain leader trap seals, 207. 
of trap seals, 74, yy, no. 
Excavations, drainage of, 112. 
Exhaust steam for heating hot-water 

tanks, 343. 
Exhausts, drainage connections of, 66. 
Expansion pipes on double boilers, 

337- 
Exposed surfaces of water closets, 

I: 5: 
Exterior lighting desirable, 144. 

Extra heavy soil pipe, 87. 



E 



Earthenware pipe for drains, no. 

for house sewer, 197. 

inside cellar, 156. 

joints on, 197. 

prohibition of, 196. 
Ejector, automatic sewage, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Electricity, thawing of pipes by, 331. 
Electrolysis, action of, 266. 

cause of, 266. 

destruction of pipes by, 265. 

general remarks on, 268. 

of cast iron, 267. 

remedy for, 267. 
Elevators, hydraulic, drainage from, 

66. 
Enamelled lavatories, 23. 
End cleanouts, 162, 163. 
Engine house, plumbing for, 241. 

floor drains for, 241. 



Factories, automatic flushing for, 245. 

regulation of plumbing in, 208. 

waste and soil lines for, 242. 
Factory lavatories, 247. 

plumbing, 241. 

toilet rooms, 241. 

toilet rooms, floors for, 242. 

toilet rooms, lighting of, 242. 

toilet rooms, ventilation of, 241, 
242. 

wash sinks, 242, 247. 
Fans, ventilation by use of, 128, 227. 
Ferrule connections included in rough- 
ing, 161. 
Ferrules, brass, use of, 88. 

weights and sizes of, 272. 
Filter beds, contact, 302, 305. 

primary, 302, 305. 
Filtered water supply, 217. 

for swimming pool, 238. 

open gravity tank for, 220. 

overhead tank for, 220. 

pressure tank for, 220. 

storage of, 220. 
Filtering materials, 219. 
Filters, animal charcoal for, 219. 

care of, 218. 

cleansing of, 219. 

for hotels, restaurants, hospitals, 
etc., 218. 



394 



INDEX 



Filters, for rain water, 289. 

gravity, use of, 218. 

pressure, construction of, 219. 

pressure, use of, 218. 
Filters, cistern, 325. 

action of, 326, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Filtration of water, 217. 

for commercial purposes, 217. 

of sewage, 304. 

through the soil, 294. 

two forms of, 217. 
Final test, the, 167. 
First test, the, 167. 
Fittings, brass drainage, 202. 

for Durham system, 261. 

special, for underground sewage 
purification systems, 304. 
Fittings, special waste and vent, 38, 143, 
201. 

venting from, 223. 
Fixture vents, requirements of, 84, 

184. 
Fixture wastes, long, 162. 
Fixtures for bath rooms, 139, 150. 

groups of, continuous vents for, 
176. 

in cellar, 201. 
Fixtures, porcelain, use of, 139. 
Flanges, roof, 91. 
Flap valve, use of, 62, 65. 
Flat buildings, refrigerator drainage 

for, 205. 
Flexible wooden sink mat, 18. 
Floats for ball-cocks, 40. 
Floor connections for Durham system, 
271, 272. 

for water closets, 37, 119. 

putty, 119. 
Floor drains for bath establishments, 

237- . 
for engine house, 241. 
for ice houses, refrigerator 

rooms, etc., 62. 
for laundries, etc., 62. 
for public toilet rooms, 227. 
for stables, 241. 
flushing of, 109. 
flushing rim, 237. 
into house drain, 196. 
into surface sewer, no. 
size of, 109. 



Floor drains, trappings of, no. 

traps for, 109. 
Floor flange, brass, use of, 119. 

for Durham system, 120. 
Floor slabs for urinals, 256. 
Floor timbers, cutting of, 133. 
Floors for factory toilet rooms, 
242. 

public toilet rooms, 227. 
Flues, local vent connections into, 

127. 
Flush pipe for water closet, 37. 
Flush tank, automatic action of, 245. 

size construction, location, etc., 
246. 
Flush tanks, concealing of, 234. 

for slop sink, 50. 

for water closet, 37. 

for water closets of public toilet 
rooms, 234. 
Flushing, automatic, 245. 
Flushing of floor drains, 109. 

of range water closets, 44. 

of water closets, 115. 
Flushing-rim floor drains, 109, 237. 

slop sinks, 49. 

type of fixtures for public toilet 
rooms, 234. 

urinals, 50, 256. 

water closets, etc., 119. 
Flushing valves, 37. 

concealed, 234. 

for slop sinks, 43, 251. 

for urinals, 43, 251, 252, 257. 

for water closets, 43, 251. 

necessary pressure for, 251. 

operation of, 251. 

sizes of connections for, 251. 

storage tanks for, 251, 252. 

under direct pressure, 251. 

under tank pressure, 251. 

use of, 251. 
Foot bath, 33. 

connections of, 33. 
Force pump, use of the, 287. 

double-acting, 315. 
Foul-air ducts for public toilet rooms, 

227. 
Freezing of main trap seal, 104. 

protection of pipes against, 
321. 
Fresh-air ducts for public toilet rooms, 



INDEX 



395 



Fresh-air inlet, 84, 104. 

bends in, 104. 

carried underground, 105. 

connection of, 104. 

distance from windows, etc., 104. 

errors in, 157. 

for cesspool trap, 294. 

for sewage tank, 278. 

not for drainage, 104. 

of underground trap, 106. 

opening of, 104. 

protection of end of, 104. 

purpose of, 104. 

should not be omitted, 155. 

size of, 105. 

through foundation, 105. 
Frost in roof pipes, 91. 
Frost-proof water closets, 70. 
Frozen water pipes thawed by elec- 
tricity, 331. 

by steam and hot water, 362. 
Fuller work, 212. 



Garage plumbing, 371. 

Gas mains destroyed by electrolysis, 265. 

Gas sewer, in plumbing system, 101. 

Gas water heaters, by-passing in, 362. 

Glass floats, 40. 

Grading of cellar bottom, 111. 

of pipes, 88. 
Gravity filters, construction of, 218. 

use of, 218. 
Gravity water supply, 286. 
Grease, collection of, in pipes, 57. 

collection of, in main trap, 104. 

entering sinks, 55. 

in sewage, 55. 

traps, 55. 

deflector for, 56. 

material for, 56. 

underground, 56. 

water jacket for, 56. 
Greenhouses, Durham system for, 263. 
Grit chamber of septic tank, 299. 
Ground-joint cleanouts, 163. 
Groups of fixtures, continuous vents 

for, 176. 
Gutter for shower bath, construction of, 

237- 
for urinals, 256. 
in cellar bottom, in. 



H 

Hair-felt to protect pipes from freez- 
ing, 321. 
Hangers, sizes of, 96. 
Hard water, effect of, 353. 

softening of, 357. 
Headers, construction of, 339. 

use of, on supply work, 214, 339. 

use of, 95. 
Heated air, action of, 123, 126. 
Heater, the P. P., 343. 
Heating boilers, soft water for, 358. 
Heating systems, drainage from, 66. 
Hoar frost in roof pipes, 91. 
Hooks, use of, 95. 
Hoppers, long, use of, 70. 
Horizontal boilers, large, supporting of, 

343- 
use of, 343. 

Horizontal piping, cleanouts on, 163. 
Horse stall, plumbing of, 69. 
Horse trough, connections for, 70. 

construction of, 70. 
Hotel sink, 55. 
Hot water, circulation of, 328. 

backing of, into meters, 361. 
Hot-water boilers, automatic control of, 

349- 
capacities of, 344. 
proper size of, 343. 
steam coils for, 344. 
Hot-water heating systems, drainage of, 

66. 
Hot-water supply for apartment build- 
ings, 211. 
country house, 287, 328. 
large buildings, 343, 344. 
office buildings, 211. 
Hot-water tanks, automatic control of, 

.349- 

size of, 213. 
House drain, 195. 

cleanouts on, 162. 

connections into, 106, 196. 

main stack at end of, 191. 

material for, 196. 

overhead, 112. 

running of, 195, 201. 

size of pipe for, 201. 
House sewer, 195. 

cast-iron pipe for, 197. 

connections into public sewer, 
198. 



396 



INDEX 



House sewer, extent of, 197. 

material for, 197. 

size of pipe for, 201. 
House tank, use of, 213. 
House trap, 101. 

advantages of, 103, no. 

cleanouts on, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

connection at, 196. 

for tenement houses, 103. 

freezing of, 104. 

in large cities, 103. 

object of, 101. 

objections to, 102. 

on country systems, 286. 

outside of foundation, 106. 

setting of, 105. 

stoppage of, 104. 
Hubs, double, use of, 89. 
Hydraulic elevators, drainage from, 66. 
Hydraulic engines, action of, 313. 

waste of water by, 313. 

work done by, 313. 
Hydraulic ram, double-acting, 314, 325. 
Hydraulic rams, 311. 

air valve on, 312. 

connections for, 311. 

drive pipe of, 313. 

force pipe from, 313. 

head of supply to, 312, 313. 

operation of, 311. 

source of supply for, 311. 

use of, 287. 

waste of water by, 313. 

waste valve of, 312. 

work done by, 313. 



I 



Ice boxes, connections for, 62. 
Ice houses, drainage of, 62. 
Increase of pipes through roof, 90, 155. 
Increasers, forms of, 90. 

use of, 91. 
Indirect-pressure ball-cocks, 40. 
Infection through untrapped plumbing 

system, 103. 
Inspection of the plumbing system, 172. 
Intercepting or main trap, 377 to 388. 
Iron body cleanouts, 162. 



J 
Jacket, water, for grease trap, 56. 
Joints, caulked, weights of, 88. 



Joints, caulked, cup, 88. 

on cast-iron pipe, 87. 
on local vent pipes, 126. 
overcast, 88. 
rust, 88. 

K 

Keyboard, use of, 214. 
Kitchen sinks, 17. 

connections for, 17. 

construction of, 17, 18. 

for hotels, etc., 17. 

hot- water supply for, 17. 

setting of, 17, 18. 

sizes of, 17. 

waste for, 161. 
Kitchen waste, catch basin for, 56. 



Laundry drainage, 62. 
Laundry tubs, 18. 

connections for, 19. 

construction of, 18. 

drum trap for, 19, 82. 

in cellars, 205. 
Lavatories, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. 

connections for, 23. 

connections -for group of, 271. 

construction of, 2^. 

continuous venting of, 23, 176. 

double batteries of, 229, 233. 

for factories, 247. 

lines of, continuous venting for, 

233- 

marble slabs for, 24. 

shower for, 32. 

S trap for, 133. 

trimmings for, 32. 
Lavatory bowls, setting of, 24. 

sizes of, 24. 
Lead and cast-iron pipe connections, 

88. 
Lead bend, connections into, 131, 156. 

connection of, ^J. 
Lead, connections without use of, 149. 

plumbing without use of, 271. 

sheet, weights of, 192. 

when not to be used as waste, 

Lead joints, caulked, 87. » 



INDEX 



397 



Lead joints, extra, allowance for, 

88 
Lead pipe, decrease in use of, 184. 

light weights of used, 158. 

objections to, 137. 

sags in, 162. 

supporting of, 162. 

use of, 92. 

use of, on small work; 191. 
Lead supply pipe, weights of, 192. 
Lead waste pipes, advantages of, 273. 

objections to, 273. 

weights of, 192. 
Lead work, displacing of, 137. 

light material used on, 192. 
Leader pipes, cleanouts on, 163. 

connections of, 196. 

outside of house, 106. 

size of, 198. 
Lift-force pump, action and construc- 
tion of, 315. 
Lift pump, action and construction of, 

.315- 
Lifts, automatic sewage, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Lifts, water, drainage from, 66. 
Lighting, exterior, desirable, 144. 

of bath room, 144. 

of factory toilet rooms, 242. 

of toilet rooms, 228. 
Lip urinal, 50, 256. 

flushing rim for, 119. 
Live steam for heating hot-water tanks, 

343- 
Local vents, 83, 123. 

action of, 123, 124. 

chimney connections of, 127. 

connections of, with flues, 127. 

contagion carried by, 125. 

draft for, 125. 

for bath rooms, 144. 

for range water closets, 45. 

for slop sinks, 49. 

for urinals, 255. 

grading of, 155. 

joints on, 126. 

material for, 126. 

pitch of, 126. 



Local vents, poor work on, 156, 157. 

purpose of, 123. 

required in unlighted and un- 
ventilated toilet rooms, 124. 

running of, 126. 

sizes of, 125. 

special, on water closet, 234. 

two systems of, 125. 

use of, in public toilet rooms, 
246. 
Local vents, main area of, 127. 

sizes of, 126. 
Lodging houses, regulation of plumb- 
ing in, 207. 
Long hoppers, use of, 70. 
Loop vents, 188. 

for lines of water closets, 242. 

sizes of, 188. 
Low-down tank, 43. 
Low-down water closet, 43. 

siphon form for, 118. 
Low-pressure steam-heating systems, 
drainage from, 66. 



M 



Main local vents, area of, 127. 
Main soil pipe, vent connection into, 90. 
Main stack at end of house drain, 191. 
Main traps, 101, 377-388. 

advantages of, 103, no. 

cleanouts on, 104, 105, 162, 163. 

connection at, 196. 

for tenement houses, 103. 

freezing of, 104. 

in large cities, 103. 

object of, 101. 

objections to, 102. 

on country systems, 286. 

outside of foundation, 106. 

setting of, 105. 

stoppage of, 104. 

use of two, 197. 
Main vents, 84. 

connections of, 90, 184. 

in high buildings, 223. 

into stack, 155. 

not required, 138. 

undesirable connection of, 91. 
Main waste pipe, vent connection into, 

90. 
Manholes, purpose of, 102. 
Manure to protect pipes from freezing, 
321. 



398 



INDEX 



Marble cements, 24. 

Marble, cleaning of, 145. • 

decrease in use of, 139. 
Mechanical devices in water closets, 

"5- 
for vents, 175. 
Mechanical seals in traps, 74. 
Mechanical ventilation, 127. 
Mixer for bidet, 51. 
Momentum affects trap seal, 74. 



N 

Nickel-plated supplies, 33. 
Non-by-pass tees, use of, 362. 
Non-siphonable traps, 73. 
use of, 149. 



O 



Obstructions in drum traps, 82, 83. 
Odors in toilet rooms, 24. 
Office buildings, hot water supply for, 
211. 
plumbing for, 223. 
Offset water closets, use of, 118. 
Offsets in stacks, 89. 
Oil of peppermint for testing, 171. 
Open gravity tank, 220. 
Open plumbing, advantages of, 119, 

I 3 I - 
Overcast joints, 88. 

Overflows, cleaning of, 145. 

connection of, JJ. 

for swimming pools, 238. 

from attic tanks, 287. 

from tanks, 62. 
Overhead house drain, 112. 

piping, support of, 95. 

tank, use of, 220. 



E 



Painting of soil pipe, 145. 

Pan water closet, objections to, 1 1 5. 

Pantry sink, 27. 

connections for, 27. 



Pantry sink, construction of, 27. 

setting of, 27. 
Partitions for stalls in toilet rooms, 228. 

for toilet rooms, construction o 1 . 
208. 

for urinals, 50. 
Patent overflow bowl, 24. 
Paved courts, drainage of, 109. 
Pedestal urinal, 257. 
Peppermint, mixture of, for testing, 
171. 

test, 167. 

objections to, 171. 
Pipe connections, various, 88. 
Pipe-supporting fittings, 95. 
Pipes, pitch of drainage and vent, 88. 

supported by piers, 95. 

thawing of, by electricity, 331. 

to protect against frost, 321. 
Piston pumps for raising sewage, 

278. 
Pitch of pipes, 88. 
Plugs, double testing, 169. 

testing, 168. 
Plumbing, inspection of, 172. 

testing of, 167. 
Plunge bath, change of water in, 237. 

connections for, 237. 

construction of, 237. 

filtered water for, 238. 
Plunger water closets, objections to, 

Pneumatic water supply, 309. 

advantages of, 310. 

applications of, 309, 310. 

operation of, 309. 

pressure from, 310. 

tanks for, 309, 310. 
Poor practices in plumbing, 155. 
Porcelain, cleaning of, 145. 

fixtures, use of, 139, 150. 

for filtering purposes, 219. 

lavatories, 23. 

urinals, 256. 
Practices, poor, in plumbing, 155. 
Pressure filters, construction of, 219. 

use of, 218. 
Pressure for air test, 170. 

for smoke test, 171. 

for water test, 169. 
Pressure supply system, 213. 
Pressures, water, table of, 169. 
Primary filter beds, 302, 305. 



INDEX 



399 



Provisions, drainage of rooms for stor- 
age of, 62. 
Public toilet rooms, automatic flush- 
ing for, 245. 

circuit vents for, 187, 234. 

concealed work in, 233. 

drinking fountains in, 228. 

floor drains for, 227. 

floors of, 227. 

flush tanks in, 234. 

flushing-rim type of fixtures for, 

234- 

lavatories for, 229. 

lighting of, 228. 

local vent in, 246. 

partitions in, 228. 

plumbing for, 227, 233. 

range water closets in, 228. 

urinals for, 255. 

ventilation of, 127, 227. 

water closets for, 234. 
Pumping by windmill, 318. 
Pumps, 314. 

centrifugal, for raising sewage, 
277, 278. 

double-acting force, 315. 

for lifting sewage, 'Z'/'j. 

lift, action and construction of, 

315- 

lift-force, action and construc- 
tion of, 315. 
operated by windmills, 318. 
piston, for raising sewage, 278. 
suction, action of, 314. 
Putty floor connections, 119. 

Q 

Quarter bends for deep-seal traps, 109. 

on circuit vents, 188. 

use of, 89. 
Quick-closing work, disadvantages of, 
212. 

R 

Rain leaders, 205. 

cleanouts on, 163. 
connected to house drain, advan- 
tages of, 207. 
connections for, 196. 
leep-seal traps for, 207. 
evaporation of traps on, 207. 
exposed, 206. 
how run, 206. 



Rain leaders, inside, 206. 

into street gutters, 206. 

into surface house drain, 206. 

into surface sewer, 110. 

material for, 206. 

outside of house, 106. 

size of, 198, 205, 206. 

two or more connected together, 
206. 

use of traps on, 205. 
Rain water, catch basin for, 327. 

filtering of, 289. 

impurities in, 325. 

into cesspools, 295. 

purification of, 326. 

storage of, 288, 325, 327. 

storage tanks for, 328. 
Rain-water filters, action of, 326, 327. 

construction of, 326, 327. 
Rain-water separators, 289. 
Ram pit, waste from, 313. 
Rams, hydraulic, 311. 

air valve on, 312. 

connections for, 311. 

double-acting, 314, 325. 

drive pipe of, 313. 

force pipe from, 313. 

head of supply to, 312, 313. 

operation of, 311. 

source of supply for, 311. 

use of, 287. 

waste of water by, 313. 

waste valve of, 312. 

work done by, 313. 
Range boilers for residences, 211. 

heating of, 328. 

material for, 192, 211. 

size of, 211. 

to reduce effective size of, 363. 
Range water closets, 44. 

in public toilet rooms, 228. 

objections to, 44. 
Reaming of ends of wrought-iron pipe, 

261. 
Recessed drainage fittings, 261. 
Refrigerator drainage for flat buildings, 

205. 
Refrigerator drip sink, 61. 
Refrigerator lines, 65. 

connections into, 65. 
Refrigerator rooms, drainage of, 62. 
Refrigerator traps, 65. 
Refrigerators, 61. 

connections for, 65. 



400 



INDEX 



Refrigerators, drip pan for, 61. 

errors in connections of, 157. 
Regulating cylinder for windmill, 311. 
Regulators for tanks, 211. 
Residences, plumbing for, 201. 

range boilers for, 211. 
Restaurant sink, 55. 
Roof connections, 91. 
Roof flanges, 91. 
Roof, fresh-air inlet through, 105. 

overflow onto, 62. 

size of pipes through, 155. 
Roof pipes, escape of gases through, 101. 

frost in, 91. 

requirements of, 91. 

support of, 96. 

use of caps and cowls on, 91. 
Roof vents, 84. 
Roughing-in, 161. 
Roughing test, 167. 

preparations for, 168. 
Roughing, work included in, 161. 
Running of soil pipe, 95. 
Rust in vent system, 90, 91. 
Rust joints, 88. 



S traps, 73, 75. 

cleanouts for bath, 138. 
.continuous vents for, 81. 

for country plumbing, 285. 

for lavatories, 133. 

forms of, 76. 

use of, 175. 
Safe for attic storage tank, 288. 
Safe wastes, connection of, 62. 
Sand for filtering purposes, 219. 
Sawdust to protect pipes from freezing, 

321. 
Scale in vent system, 90, 91. 
Schools, automatic flushing for, 245. 
Scouring action of Straps, j6. 
Seal of traps, 73, 74. 

causes affecting, 74. 

evaporation of, no, 176. 
Seat vent, 123. 

Self-cleansing factory sink, 247. 
Separate drainage system for each 

house, 103. 
Separate waste entrances for fixtures, 

131, 132, 137, 138. 
Separators, rain-water, 289. 
Septic tanks, 299, 366, 367, 368,369,370. 



Septic tank, action of, 299. 

action of bacteria in, 299. 

construction of, 299. 

discharge chamber of, 301. 

displaces cesspools, 299. 

disposal of contents of, 301. 

final disposal from, 302. . 

light, air, and warmth of- 299. 

size of, 299. 

use of, 299. 

venting of, 285. 
Service pipes destroyed by electrolysis, 
265. 

frozen, thawed by electricity, 331. 

thawing of, by steam or hot wa- 
ter, 362. 
Setting of lavatory bowls, 24. 
Settling chamber of septic tank, 299. 
Sewage below sewer level, disposal of, 
277. 

filtration of, through soil, 302. 

lifting of, 2JJ. 

pressure necessary to raise, 279. 

underground, disposal of, 302. 
Sewage ejector, automatic, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Sewage lifts, automatic, 277, 278. 

action of, 278. 

advantages of, 280. 

for large work, 280. 

for marine work, 282. 

for public sewage, 281. 

proper size of, 281. 

venting of, 279. 
Sewage pumps, use of, 2J7. 
Sewage siphons, automatic, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Sewage system, surface, rain leaders in- 
to, 206. 
Sewer gas in plumbing system, 101. 
Sewer level, disposal of sewage below, 

277. 
Sewers, circulation of air in, 102. 

cesspools connected to, 293. 

house sewer connections into, 
198. 






INDEX 



401 



Sewers, ventilation of, 102. 
Sheet lead, weights of, 192. 
Shellac for painting pipes, 145. 
Shower bath, 34. 

connections for, 34 

construction of, 34. 

waste from, 237. 
Shower for lavatory, 34. 
Sink, bar, connection of, 66. 
Sink, cast-iron, sizes of, 17. 
Sink, drip, for refrigerator, 61. 
Sink for discharge of cellar drainer, 

112. 
Sink, hotel or restaurant, 55. 
Sink, kitchen, 17. 

connections for, 17. 

construction of, 17, 18. 

for hotels, etc., 17. 

hot- water supply for, 17. 

setting of, 17, 18. 

waste for, 161. 
Sink mat, flexible wooden, 18. 
Sink, pantry, 28. 

connections for, 28. 

construction of, 28. 

setting of, 28. 
Sink, slop, 49. 

automatic flushing of, 247. 

connections for, 49. 

flush tank for, 50. 
Sink, soda fountain, connection of, 

66. 
Sink, stall, 69, 241. 
Sink, vegetable wash, 18. 

construction of, 18. 
Sinks, wash, for factories, 242, 247. 
Siphon, action of, 75. 

automatic, for range water clos- 
ets, 44. 

for automatic urinal, 247. 

water raised by, 316. 
Siphonage applied to the water closet, 
117. 

in unvented plumbing systems, 
229. 

of drum traps, 81, 8^. 

of traps, 74, 138. 

of traps, prevention of, 176. 

of unvented traps, 149. 

of water-closet traps, 38. 

prevented by venting, 75. 

water supply by, 316. 



Siphonic influences on traps, 39. 
Siphonic water supply, 286, 316. 
Siphon- jet urinal, 257. 
Siphon-jet water closet, 115. 
Siphon water closet, 43, 115. 

for low-down style, 118. 
Siphons, automatic sewage, 305. 

action of, 306. 

use of, 305. 
Sitz bath, 33. 

connections for, 33. 
Slate, cement for mending, 19. 

for urinals, 50. 
Slate factory sink, 247. 
Slate urinals, 256. 

flushing of, 256. 
Slop hopper, waste-preventive, 50. 
Slop sink, 49. 

automatic flushing of, 247. 

connections for, 49. 

flush tank for, 50. 

flushing rim for, 119. 

flushing valves for, 251. 

local venting of, 123, 124. 

operated by flush valves, 43. 
Smoke, materials to produce, 171. 
Smoke machine, 171. 
Smoke test, 167. 
Smoke test, advantages of, 172. 

air pressure for, 171. 

connections for, 171. 
Soapstone, cement for mending, 19. 
Soda fountain sinks, connection of, 

66. 
Softening of hard water, 357. 
Soft water, supply of, 353. 

for garages, 358. 

for heating boilers, 358. 
Soil pipe, 87. 

changes in direction of, 89. 

connections for, 87. 

definition of, 87. 

extra heavy, 87. 

for factories, 242. 

painting of, 145. 

running of, 95. 

size of, 90. 

standard, 87. 

supported on tiled floors, 234. 

supporting of, 95. 
Soil pipe stacks in high buildings, size 

of, 223. 
Soil pipe stoppers, 168. 



INDEX 



Soil vents, 84. 

definition of, 138. 
Solder, estimating of, 362. 
Soldering nipples, weights and sizes of, 
272. 

use of, on Durham system, 272. 
Special waste fittings, 38. 
Stable drains, no. 
Stable waste into catch basin, 241. 
Stables, floor drains for, 241. 

plumbing for, 69, 70, 241. 
Stacks, alignment of, 89. 

in high buildings, size of, 223. 

main, at end of house drain, 
191. 

offsets in, 89. 

running of, 133. 

sizes of, 90. 

testing of, 169. 

through roof, 89. 
Stall sink for stables, 69, 241. 
Standard soil pipe, 87. 
Standards for soil pipe, 234. 
Standing overflow for horse trough, 

70. 
Steam coils for hot-water boilers, 211, 

343- 344- 
Steam for automatic sewage lifts, 280. 

heating of boilers by, 343. 
Steam-heating systems, drainage from, 

66. 
Steel and iron, differences between, 264. 
Steel pipe, life of, 263, 264, 265. 
Stone for filtering purposes, 219. 
Stoppers, soil pipe, 168. 
Storage tanks. 238. 

attic, 287. 

construction of, 238. 

covered, 238. 

for flushing valves, 251, 252. 

for rain water, 328. 

supply for, 238. 

supporting of, 238. 
Submerged cleanouts, 82, 83, 164. 
Subsoil drainage, in. 

catch basin for, in. 

disposal of, 112. 
Subsoil drains, construction of, ill. 

drain tile for, 111. 

grading of, in. 

into surface sewer, no. 
Suction of sewage pump, 278. 
Suction pipes, lead used for, 273. 



Suction pump, action of, 314. 
Sump tank, automatic, 280. 
Supplies, nickel-plated, 33. 
Supply for double boiler, ^t>7- 

hot water, for large buildings, 

343- 
Supply pipe, for cellar drainer, 112. 

large hot water, 344. 

material for, 192. 
Supply systems, headers for, 214. 

street pressure, 213. 

tank pressure, 213. 

three-pipe, 353. 
Supply tanks, 238. 
Supporting of roof pipes, 91, 96. 

soil pipe, 95. 
Surface sewage system, rain leaders in- 
to, 206. 
Surface sewers, no. 
Surface venting, 123. 
Swimming pool, change of water in, 237. 

connections for, 237. 

construction of, 237. 

filtered water for, 238. 



Tank overflow, 62. 
Tank-pressure system of supply, 213. 
Tank regulators, 211. 
Tanks, attic storage, 287. 

automatic flush, action of, 245. 

automatic sump, 280. 

condensing, use of, 66. 

flush, concealing of, 234. 

hot water, automatic control of, 

349- 

low-down, 43. 

open gravity, use of, 220. 

overhead, use of, 220. 

septic, 299. 

size of, 213. 

storage, for flushing valves, 251, 
252. 

venting of, 285. 
Tanks, capacity of, to find, 319. 

for double boiler, 337. 

for pneumatic water supply, 309, 
310. 

for storage and supply, 238. 

for storing rain water, 328. 
Tapped fittings, use of, 90. 
Tar, pipes coated with, 87. 



INDEX 



403 



Tees, use of, on drainage system, 89. 

wrong use of, 155. 
Tell-tale, use of, 287. 
Tenement houses, drainage of yards, 
courts, and areas of, 208. 

main trap used in, 103. 

regulation of plumbing in, 207. 

ventilation of toilet rooms of, 
208. 
Testing of concealed piping, 167. 

high stacks, 169. 

old work, 167. 

plumbing system, 167. 

plumbing system in sections, 169. 
Testing plugs, 168. 

double, 169. 
Tests, air, 167. 

advantages of, 170. 

objections to, 170. 

pressure for, 170. 

final, 167. 

first, 167. 

forms of, 167. 

peppermint, 167, 171. 

peppermint, objections to, 171. 

purpose of, 167. 

roughing, 167. 

roughing, preparations for, 168. 

smoke, 167, 171. 

smoke, advantages of, 172. 

smoke, connections for, 171. 

water, 167. 

water, by whom made, 168. 

water, pressure of, 169. 

water, when applied, 161. 
Thawing pipes by electricity, 331. 

by steam and hot water, 362. 
Three-pipe system of supply, 353. 
Tiling of bath rooms, 139. 
Timbers, cutting of, 133. 
Toilet apartments of tenement houses, 

ventilation of, 208. 
Toilet rooms, lighting of, 228. 

for factories, floors for, 242. 

for factories, lighting of, 242. 

for factories, ventilation of, 242. 

for factories, 242. 

odors in, 24. 

public, automatic flushing for, 

245- 
public, circuit vents for, 187. 

public, concealed work in, 233. 

public, floor drains for, 227. 



Toilet rooms, public, floors of, 227. 

public, partitions in, 208, 228. 

public, plumbing for, 227, 233. 

public, urinals for, 255. 

public, use of lavatories in, 229. 

public, use of local vent in, 246. 

public, use of range water closets 
in, 228. 

water closets, underground, dis- 
posal of waste from, 277. 

water closets, ventilation of, 123, 
124, 127, 227. 
Toilet soaps, odors from use of, 144. 
Trap, definition of, 73. 

for line of shower baths, 237. 

serving two fixtures, 82, 131, 
132. 
Traps, adjustable for slop sink, 49. 

cleanouts for, yy. 

deep-seal, for rain leaders, 207. 

deep-seal, use of, 109. 

drum, cleanouts on, 164, 

drum, connections for, 81. 

drum, for bath tub, 81, 149. 

drum, for country plumbing, 285. 

drum, for laundry tubs, 82. 

drum, for refrigerators, 61. 

drum, obstructions in, 82, 83. 

drum, siphonage of, 81, 83. 

drum, stoppage of, 82. 

drum, unvented, 81. 

fixture, cleaning of, 145. 

for bath tubs, 31, yy. 

for cellar drab. in. 

for floor and yard drains, 109. 

for refrigerators, 65. 

for various fixtures, sizes of, yy. 

formed by sags in lead pipe, 162. 

grease, 55. 

half-S, venting of, 175. 

house, 101. 

house, advantages of, 103, no. 

house, cleanouts on, 104, 105, 
162, 163. 

house, for tenement houses, 103. 

house, freezing of, 104. 

house, in large cities, 103. 

house, object of, 101. 

house, objections to, 102. 

house, outside of foundation, 106. 

house, setting of, 105. 

house, stoppage of, 104. 

how set, yy. 



404 



INDEX 



Traps, internal partitions in, 74. 

location of cleanouts on, 164. 
main, 101. 

main, advantages of/103, Iia 
main, connection at, 196. 
main, for tenement houses, 103. 
main, in large cities, 103. 
main, object of, 101. 
main, objections to, 102. 
main, on country systems, 286. 
main, outside of foundation, 106 
main, setting of, 105. 
main, stoppage of, 104. 
mechanical seals in, 74. 
non-siphonable, 73. 
non-siphonable, use of, 149. 
objections to venting of, 175. 
prevention of siphonage of, 176 
rain leader, cleanouts on, 163. 
requirements of, 73. 

S ' 73 " 

S, cleanout for, 138. 

S, for country plumbing, 285. 

S, for lavatories, 133. 

S, siphonage of, 138. 

S, siphonic influences on, 39. 

S, stoppage of vents of, 175. 

S, under floors, 77. 

underground, cleanouts on, 163. 

unvented, siphonage of, 149. 

use of, on rain leaders, 205. 

use of S, 175. 

the water-closet, 115. 

Trapping of fixtures, errors in, 156. 

floor and yard drains, no. 

rain leaders, 106. 

Trap cleanouts submerged, 82, 83. 

Trap seals, causes affecting, 74. 

definition of, 73. 

evaporation of, 74, 77 ^ Iia 

evaporation of decreased, by 

continuous venting, 176. 

of rain leader traps, evaporation 

of, 207. 

of water closet, 115. 

Trap vents, requirements of, 84, 184. 

Trench work, 198. 

Trimmings for baths, 32. 

for lavatories, 32. 

Trough, horse, 70. 

Trough urinal, 257. 

Tubs, laundry, 18. 

Two-flat house, plumbing for, 205. 



Two-floor work, continuous venting 

for, 179. 
T-Ys, use of, 89, 155. 

U 

Underground cast-iron pipe, 162. 

disposal of contents of septic 
tank, 302. 

drain pipe, how run, 198. 

grease traps, 56. 

piping destroyed by electrolysis, 
265. 

plumbing systems, subsoil drain- 
age of, 277, 280. 

purification of sewage, 302. 

toilet rooms, disposal of waste 
from, 277. 

traps, cleanouts on, 163. 

wrought-iron pipe, 162. 
Unvented plumbing systems, siphonage 

in, 229. 
Urinals, 50. 

automatic flushing of, 257. 

automatically flushed, 246, 256. 

connections for, 50. 

connections for group of, 271. 

continuous venting of, 256. 

floor slabs for, 256. 

flushing rim, 256. 

flushing valves for, 251, 252, 

257- 
for public toilet rooms, 255. 

gutters for, 256. 

lip, 256. 

lip, flushing rim for, 119. 

local venting of, 123, 124, 255. 

materials for connections of, 

273- 

on Durham system, 257. 

operated by flush valves, 43. 

partitions and backs for, 50. 

pedestal, 257. 

porcelain, 256. 

setting of, 50. 

siphon-jet, 257. 

slate, 256. 

slate for, 50. 

trough, 257. 

waste-preventive, 50. 
V 
Vacuum formed in cellar drainer, 1 12. 
Valve waste, connections for, 214. 



INDEX 



405 



Valve water closets, objections to, 

"5- 

Vegetable wash sink, 18. 

construction of, 18. 
Vent, main lines of, in high buildings, 

223. 
Vent not required for water closet, 

138. 
Vent through cleanout cover, 82. 
Vent system, corrosion of piping of, 
264. 
rust, scale, and condensation in, 

90, 91- 
"Vents, blind, 157. 
branch, 84. 

branch, running of, 184. 
circuit and loop for lines of water 

closets, 242. 
circuit, construction of, 187. 
circuit, for public toilet rooms, 

187. 
circuit, quarter bends on, 188. 
cleanouts on, 76, 164. 
for Durham system, 261. 
loop, 188. 
sizes of, 188. 
main, 84. 

main, connection of, 90, 184. 
main, not required, 138. 
main, materials for, 92, 184. 
mechanical devices for, 175. 
pitch of, 184. 
soil and waste, definitions of, 

138. 

stoppage of, 175. 

trap, requirements of, 84. 

various forms of, 83. 
Ventilation by use of fans, 128. 

mechanical, 127. 

of bath room, 144. 

of comfort stations, 127. 

of factory toilet rooms, 242. 

of public toilet rooms, 127, 
227. 

of sewers, 102. 

of tenement-house toilet rooms, 
208. 

of toilet rooms, 123. 

requirements for, 124. 
Venting, 73. 

circuit, 187. 

circuit, in public toilet rooms, 

234- 
continuous, 175. 



Venting, continuous, advantages of, 
175, 180. 

continuous, economy of, 180, 
183. 

continuous, for apartment 
houses, 179. 

continuous, for groups of fix- 
tures, 176. 

continuous, for lavatories, 176. 

continuous, for line of fixtures, 
271. 

continuous, for lines of lava- 
tories, 233. 

continuous, for lines of urinals, 
256. 

continuous, for S trap, 81, 83. 

continuous, for two-floor work, 

179. 

continuous, for two lines of fix- 
tures, 183. 

continuous, for water closets, 
187. 

continuous, from double fittings, 
223. 

continuous, objections to, 175. 

of cesspools, 285, 294. 

of condensing tank, 66. 

of fixtures at distance from main 
vent, 184. 

fixtures at distance from stack, 

137- 
of half S trap, 175. 
of lines of water closets, 187, 

188, 242. 
of S traps, 76. 
of septic tanks, 285. 
of sewage ejectors, 279. 
of slop sink, 49. 
of water closets, 38, 223. 
of water closet from crockery, 

155- 
of water-closet trap, 143. 
poor practices in, 156. 
practical requirements, of, 83, 

184. 
prevents siphonage, 75. 
Vertical pipes, running of, 133. 

support of, 96. 
Vertical stacks, running of, 89. 
Vises for brass pipe, use of, 202. 
Vitreous chinaware for water closets, 

118. 
Vitrified earthen pipe for drains, 
no. 



406 



INDEX 



W 

Wash-down water closet, 115, 116. 
Wash-down siphon water closet, 117. 
Washout water closet, 115, 116, 117. 
Wash sinks for factories, 242. 
Wash trays, 18. 

connections for, 19. 

construction of, 18. 

drum trap for, 19, 82. 

in cellars, 205. 
Waste and vent fittings, special, 201. 
Waste connections, cleaning of, 145. 

separate entrance of, into stack, 
131, 132, 137, 138. 
Waste fittings, special, 143. 
Waste pipe, definitions of, 87. 

size of, 90. 
Waste-preventive slop hopper, 50. 

urinal, 50. 
Waste valve of hydraulic ram, opera- 
tion of, 312. 
Waste vents, 84, 138. 
Water, natural purification of, 290. 

plumbing system filled with, 169. 

wasted by the hydraulic ram, 

3I3- 

Water closets, 115, 374. 

automatic flush for, 245. 

circuit and loop vents for, 242. 

connections for, 37. 

continuous venting of, 187. 

exposed surface in, 115. 

floor connections for, 37, 119. 

floor connections for Durham 
system, 271, 272. 

crazing of, 119. 

flush pipe to, 37. 

flush tank for, 37. 

flush valve for, 37, 43. 

flushing of, 115. 

flushing rim for, 119. 

flushing valves for, 251. 

for public toilet rooms, 234. 

frost-proof, 70. 

in factories, number of, 207. 

in public toilet rooms, flush tanks 
for, 234. 

in tenement houses, etc., num- 
ber of, 207. 

local vent a part of, 234. 

local venting of, 123. 

location of, 119. 



Water closets, low-down, 43. 

material for, 118. 

modern, advantages of, 115. 

no mechanical devices in, 115. 

offset, use of, 118. 

pan, valve, and plunger, 115. 

principal forms of, 115. 

range, 44. 

requirements of, 115. 

siphon, 115, 118. 

siphonage applied to, 117. 

siphonage of, 38. 

siphon -jet, 115. 

trap seal of, 115. 

vented from crockery, 38, 155. 

vented from lead bend, 38. 

vented from T-Y fitting, 38. 

ventilation of, 119. 

venting of, 38, 143, 223. 

venting of lines of, 187, 188, 242. 

venting of, unnecessary, 138. 

wash-down, 115. 

wash-down siphon, 117. 

washout, 115, 116. 

waste from, 37. 

water jet applied to, 117. 

when unnecessary to vent, 205. 
Water jacket for grease trap, 56. ' 
Water jet applied to water closet, 

117. 
Water lifts, drainage from, 66. 
Water mains, destroyed by electrolysis, 
265. 

frozen, thawed by electricity, 

33i- 

Water meters, backing of hot water 
into, 361. 

by-pass for, 361. 
Water pressures, table of, 169. 
Water-softening device, 357. 
Water supply by siphonage, 286, 316. 

for attic storage tanks, 287. 

for country systems, 286, 325. 

for double boilers, 337. 

gravity, 286. 

pipes, material for, 192. 

pneumatic, 309. 
Water test, 167. 

by whom made, 168. 

pressure of, 169. 

when applied, 161. 
Weight of piping of plumbing system, 
96. 



INDEX 



407 



Wells, driven, 315, 316. 

for windmill pumping, 319. 

forms of, 290. 

location of, 289. 
Wheel pits, drainage of, 112. 
Windmills, regulating cylinder for, 

3ii : 
pumping by, 318. 
wells for, 319. 
Windmill pumps, 318. 
Windows, distance of fresh-air inlet 
from, 104. 

Wi re baskets for roof pipes, 91. 
Wooden laundry tubs, 19. 

sinks, 19. 

sink mat, 18. 
Wrenches for brass pipe, use of, 202. 
Wrought-iron and brass pipe connec- 
tions, 88. 



Wrought-iron and cast-iron pipe con- 
nections, 88. 
Wrought-iron drainage pipe, weights 

of, 261. 
Wrought-iron pipes, advantage of, 97. 
connection of into cast-iron pipe, 

262. 
cutting and reaming of, 261. 
for refrigerator work, 65. 
life of, 263, 264, 265. 
underground, 162. 
use of, 92. 



Y branch, use of, 89, 155. 
Yard drains, 109. 

into surface sewers, no. 

size of, 109. 

trapping of, 109, no. 
Yards, drainage of, 109, 208. 






JL 



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INDEX 



PAGE 

Anrasives and Abrasive Wheels 29 

Accidents 25 

Air Brakes 24, 26 

Arithmetic 13, 27, 37 

Automobile Books 3, 4, 5, 6 

Automobile Charts 6,7 

Automobile Ignition Systems 7 

Automobile Lighting 4 

Automobile Questions and Answers. ... 5 

Automobile Repairing 5 

Automobile Starting Systems 4 

Automobile Trouble Charts 6,7 

Automobile Welding 6 

Aviation 8 

Bells, Electric 14 

Bevel Gear ■ 21 

Boats, Motor 30 

Boiler Room Chart 9 

Boilers, Marine 30 

Brazing 9 

Cams 21 

Carburetion Trouble Charts 7 

Carburetors 4 

Car Charts 9 

Cements 12 

Change Gear 21 

Charts G, 7, 9 

Chemistry 10 

Coal 24 

Combustion 19 

Concrete 10, 11, 12 

Concrete for Farm Uso 11 

Concrete for Shop Use 11 

Cosmetics 32 

Dictionary 12, 17 

Dies 12 

Drawing 13, 32 

Drawing for Plumbers 32 

Dynamo Building 14 

Electric Bells 14 

Electric Dictionary 17 

Electric Switchboards 15 

Electric Toy Making 16 

Electric Wiring 15 

Electricity 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 

Electroplating 19 

Encyclopedia 29 

Engine, Aviation 8 

E-T Air Brake 26 

Factory Management 19 

Ford Automobile 4 

Ford Tractor 4 

Ford Trouble Chart 7 

Formulas and Recipes 34 

Fuel 19 

Gas Engines 20, 21 

Gas Tractor 39 

Gearing and Cams 21 

Glossary Aviation Terms 8 

Heating 37 

High Frequency Apparatus 15 

Horse-Power Chart 36 

Hot Water Heating 37 

House Wiring 17, 18 

Hydraulics 22 

Ice 22 

Ignition Systems 4 

Ignition Trouble Chart 7 

India Rubber 35 

Interchangeable Manufacturing 27 

Inventions 22 

Kerosene Carburetors 4 

Knots 23 



PAGE 

Lathe Work 23 

Link Motions 24 

Liquid Air 24 

Locomotive Boilers 25 

Locomotive Breakdowns 25 

Locomotive Engineering. 24, 25, 26 

Machinist Books 27, 28, 29 

Manual Training 30 

Marine Engineering 30 

Marine Gasoline Engines 21 

Mechanical Drawing 13 

Mechanical Movements 28 

Metal Work 12 

Model Making 29 

Motor Boats 30 

Motorcycles 7,31 

Motor Truck 3 

Naval Engineering 30 

Patents 22 

Pattern Making 31 

Perfumery 32 

Perspective , 13 

Plumbing 32, 33 

Punches 12 

Producer Gas 21 

Questions and Answers on Automobile. 5 

Questions on Heating 38 

Radio Time Signal Receiver 16,17 

Railroad Accidents 25 

Railroad Charts 9 

Recipe Book 34 

Refrigeration 22 

Repairing Automobiles 5 

Rope Work 23 

Rubber 35 

Rubber Stamps 35 

Saw Filing 35 

Saws, Management of 35 

Screw Cutting 35 

Shipbuilders' Pocket Book 30 

Shop Construction 27 

Shop Management 27 

Shop Practice 27, 28, 29 

Shop Tools 29 

Sketching Paper 13 

Slide Valve 24 

Soldering 9 

Splices and Rope Work 23 

Steam Engineering 35, 36, 37 

Steam Heating 37 

Steel 38 

Storage Batteries 18 

Submarine Chart 9 

Switchboards 15 

Tapers 23 

Telegraphy, Wireless 14, 16, 18 

Telephone 18 

Thread-Cutting 27 

Tool Making 27 

Tool Steel 38 

Toy Making 16 

Tractive Power Chart 9 

Tractor, Gas 39 

Train Rules 26 

Vacuum Heating 38 

Valve Setting 24 

Ventilation 37 

Walschaert Valve Gear 26 

Waterproofing „ 12 

Welding 6, 39 

Wireless Telegraphy 14, 16, 18 

Wiring 15, 17, 18 

Wiring Diagrams 15 

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AUTOMOBILES 

THE MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE— ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUC- 
TION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 
The latest and most complete treatise on the Gasoline Automobile ever issued. Written 
in simple language by a recognized authority, familiar with every branch of the auto- 
mobile industry. Free from technical terms. Everything is explained so simply 
that anyone of average intelligence may gain a comprehensive knowledge of the 
gasoline automobile. The information is up-to-date and includes, in addition to an 
exposition of principles of construction and description of all types of automobiles and 
their components, valuable money-saving hints on the care and operation of motor- 
cars propelled by internal combustion engines. Among some of the subjects treated 
might be mentioned: Torpedo and other symmetrical body forms designed to reduce 
air resistance; sleeve valve, rotary valve and other types of silent motors; increasing 
tendency to favor worm-gear power -transmission: universal application of magneto 
ignition; development of automobile electric-lighting systems: block motors; under- 
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motors; latest automatic lubrication systems; silent chains for valve operation and 
change-speed gearing; the use of front wheel brakes and many other detail refinements. 
By a careful study of the pages of this book one can gain practical knowledge of auto- 
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what to do, how and when to do it. Nothing has been omitted, no detail has been 
slighted. Every part of the automobile, its equipment, accessories, tools, supplies, 
spare parts necessary, etc., have been discussed comprehensively. If you are or 
intend to become a motorist, or are in any way interested in the modern Gasoline 
Automobile, this is a book you cannot afford to be without. 1032 pages — and 
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and double-page plates, showing all parts of the automobile. Including 12 large 
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WHAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK: 
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Iron Age. 

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"It is just the kind of a book a motorist needs if he wants to understand his car." — 
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THE MODERN MOTOR TRUCK, ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERA- 
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Just off the press and treats on all types of motor trucks and industrial tractors and 
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to them. AH garage and service station men should have a copy of this book for 
reference because truck construction differs from passenger car design in many im- 
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features that have been tested out iu real service. 1921 Edition. Cloth, 6x9, 
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THE MODEL T FORD CAR, ITS CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND 
REPAIR, INCLUDING THE FORDSON FARM TRACTOR, F. A. LIGHT- 
ING AND STARTING SYSTEM, FORD MOTOR TRUCK. By Victor 
W. Page. 

This is the most complete and practical instruction book ever published on the Ford 
car and Pordson tractor. All parts of the Ford Model T car and Fordsbn tractor 
are described and illustrated in a comprehensive manner. The construction is 
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AUTOMOBILE STARTING, LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS. By 
Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This practical volume has been written with special reference to the requirements of the 
non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory matter, relating to all 
types of automobile ignition, starting and lighting systems. It can be understood by 
anyone, even without electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical principles are 
considered before any attempt is made to discuss features of the various systems. 
These basic principles are clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the 
leading systems of starting, lighting and ignition have been described and illustrated with 
the co-operation of the experts employed by the manufacturers. Wiring diagrams are 
shown in both technical and non-technical forms. All symbols are fully explained. It 
is a comprehensive review of modern starting and ignition system practice, and includes 
a complete exposition of storage battery construction, care and repair. All types of 
starting motors, generators, magnetos, and all ignition or lighting system units are 
fully explained. The systems of cars already in use as well as those that are to come 
are considered. Every person in the automobile business needs this volume. 5J4x7J^. 
Cloth. 815 pages, 492 illustrations, 3 folding plates. New revised and enlarged 
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GASOLINE AND KEROSENE CARBURETORS, CONSTRUCTION, IN- 
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This is a simple, comprehensive, and authoritative treatise for practical men ex- 
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vaporized and turned into gas for operating all types of internal combustion engines in- 
tended to operate on vapors of gasoline, kerosene, benzol, and alcohol. All leading types 
of carburetors are described in detail, special attention being given -to the forms devised 
to use the cheaper fuels such as kerosene. Carburetion troubles, fuel system troubles, 
carburetor repairs and installation, electric primers and economizers, hot spot mani- 
folds and all modern carburetor developments are considered in a thorough manner. 
Methods of adjusting all types of carburetors are fully discussed as well as sugges- 
tions for securing maximum fuel economy and obtaining highest engine power. 
This book is invaluable to repairmen, students, and motorists, as it includes the 
most complete exposition on kerosene carburetors ever published. The drawings 
showing carburetor construction are made from accurate engineering designs and 
show all parts of late types of carburetors. 213 pages. 89 illustrations. . $2.00 

HINTS AND TIPS FOR AUTOMOBILISTS. By Victor W. Page. 

The book is ideal for the busy man or woman who wants to know about car operation 
and upkeep because of the economies possible when an automobile is intelligently 
operated. It contains many money-saving hints and a brief simple exposition of 
location and remedy of roadside troubles apt to occur under ordinary operating 
conditions. Price 75 cents 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

AUTOMOBILE REPAIRING MADE EASY. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 
A comprehensive, practical exposition of every phase of modern automobile repairing 
practice. Outlines every process incidental to motor car restoration. Gives plans for 
workshop construction, suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinery and tools 
necessary to carry on the business successfully. Tells how to overhaul and repair all 
parts of all automobiles. Everything is explained so simply that motorists and students 
can acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. This work starts with 
the engine, then considers carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The 
clutch, change-speed gearing and transmission system are considered in detail. Contains 
instructions for repairing all types of axles, steering gears and other chassis parts. 
Many tables, short cuts in figuring and rules of practice are given for the mechanic. 
Explains fully valve and magneto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of 
trouble, repair of ball and roller bearings, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multi- 
tude of subjects of interest to all in the garage and repair business. 
This book contains special instructions on electric starling, lighting and ignition systems, 
tire repairing and rebuilding, autogenous welding, brazing and soldering, heat treatment of 
steel, latest timing practice, eight and twelve-cylinder motors, etc. 5%x8. Cloth. 1060 
pages, 1,000 illustrations, 11 folding plates. Price $4.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK : 

" 'Automobile Repairing Made Easy' is the best book on the subject I have ever seen 
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burg, Neb. 

"I wish to thank you for sending me a copy of 'Automobile Repairing Made Easy.' I 
do not think it could be excelled." — S. "YV. Gisriel, Director of Instruction, Y. M. C. A., 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO MODERN AUTOMOBILE 
CONSTRUCTION, DRIVING AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

A practical self-instructor for students, mechanics and motorists, consisting of thirty- 
seven lessons in the form of questions and answers, written with special reference to the 
requirements of the non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory 
matter relating to all branches of automobiling. The subject-matter is absolutely 
correct and explained in simple language. If you can't answer all of the following 
questions, you need this work. The answers to these and nearly 2000 more are to 
be found in its pages. Give the name of all important parts of an automobile and 
describe their functions? Describe action of latest types of kerosene carburetors? 
What is the difference between a "double" ignition system and a "dual" ignition 
system? Name parts of an induction coil? How are valves timed? What is an 
electric motor starter and how does it work? What are advantages of worm drive 
gearing? Name all important types of ball and roller bearings? What is a "three- 
quarter" floating axle? What is a two-speed axle? What is the Vulcan electric gear 
shift? Name the causes of lost power in automobiles? Describe all noises due to 
deranged mechanism and give causes? How can you adjust a carburetor by the 
color of the exhaust gases? What causes "popping" in the carburetor? What tools 
and supplies are needed to equip a car? How do you drive various makes of cars? 
What is a differential lock and where is it used? Name different systems of wire 
wheel construction, etc., etc. A popular work at a popular price. 5Mx7 J^. Cloth. 
701 pages, 387 illustrations, 3 folding plates. New revised edition. Price $2.50 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 
"If you own a car — get this book."— The Glassworker. 

"Mr. Page has the faculty of making difficult subjects plain and understandable." — 
Bristol Press. 

"We can name no writer better qualified to prepare a book of instruction on auto- 
mobiles than Mr. Victor W. Page." — Scientific American. 
"The best automobile catechism that has appeared." — Automobile Topics. 
"There are few men, even with long experience, who will not find this book useful. 
Great pains have been taken to make it accurate. Special recommendation must be 
given to the illustrations, which have been made specially for the work. Such ex- 
cellent books as this greatly aisi.it in fully understanding your automobile." — En- 
gineering News. 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

HOW TO RUN AN AUTOMOBILE. By Victor W. Page. 

This treatise gives concise instructions for starting and running all makes of gasoline 
automobiles, how to care for them, and gives distinctive features of control. De- 
scribes every step for shifting gears, controlling engine, etc. Among the chapters 
contained are: I. Automobile Parts and Their Functions. II. General Starting 
and Driving Instructions. III. Control Systems — Care of Automobiles. Thoroughly 
illustrated. 178 pages. 72 illustrations. Price $1.50 

THE AUTOMOBILIST'S POCKET COMPANION AND EXPENSE RECORD. 
By Victor W. Page. 

This book is not only valuable as a convenient cost record, but contains much in- 
formation of value to motorists. Includes a condensed digest of auto laws of all 
States, a lubrication schedule, hints for care of storage battery, and care of tires, 
location of road troubles, anti-freezing solutions, horse-power table, driving hints 
and many useful tables and recipes of interest to all motorists. Not a technical 
book in any sense of the word, just a collection of practical facts in simple language 
for the every-day motorist. Convenient pocket size. Price $1.50 

AUTOMOBH.E WELDING WITH THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME. By 

M. Keith Dunham. 

Explains in a simple manner apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construct 
necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile 
parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. Gives principles never to be for- 
gotten. This book is of utmost value, since the perplexing problems arising when 
metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to 
overcome them shown. 167 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $1.50 



AUTOMOBILE, AVIATION AND MOTORCYCLE CHARTS 

AVIATION CHART— LOCATION OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANT TROUBLES 
MADE EASY. By Major Victor W. Page, A.S., S.C.U.S.R. 

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points 
where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. In- 
tended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty. 
Price 35 cents 

CHART. GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY— A CHART SHOW- 
ING SECTIONAL VD3W OF GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by Victor 
W. Page, M.E. 

It shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle 
type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the de- 
rangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. 

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen, automobile sales- 
men, chauffeurs, motorboat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor- 
cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants. 
It simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the 
novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It should be on the walls of 
every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. It can 
be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease, and will insure against loss of time 
when engine trouble manifests itself. 

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is prepared 
by a practical motorist for all who motor. More information for the money than ever 
before offered. No details omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Securely mailed on receipt 
of 35 cents 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

CHART. LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com- 
piled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This shows clear sectional views depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and 
auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply system, igni- 
tion group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements 
that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This 
chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine 
faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well 
by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool- 
box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engine 
trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs 
and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual ex- 
perience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes. 
It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine de- 
rangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by 
guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop 
when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on 
heavy bond paper. Price 35 cents 

CHART. LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS. Compiled by 
Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design 
and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil, also the frequency with which they 
must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in 
motor-car maintenance. Size 24x38 inches. Price 36 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com- 
piled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This chart shows all parts of a typical pressure feed fuel supply system and gives 
causes of trouble, how to locate defects and means of remedying them. Size 24x38 
inches. Price 35 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY. 

Compiled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

In this diagram all parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto 
current are shown, and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and 
eliminating them when found. Size 24x38 inches. Price 35 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM FAULTS. 

Compiled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This composite diagram shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated 
water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions 
for curing all overheating and loss of power faults due to faulty action of the oiling 
or cooling group. Size 24x38 inches. Price . ' 35 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM FAULTS. 

The most complete chart yet devised, showing all parts of the modern automobile 
starting, lighting and ignition systems, giving instructions for systematic location of 
all faults in wiring, lamps, motor or generator, switches and all other units. Invalu- 
able to motorists, chauffeurs and repairmen. Size 24x38 inches. Price . 35 cents 

CHART. MOTORCYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Compiled by Victor 
W. Page, M.E. 

A chart showing sectional view of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. This chart 
simplifies location of all power-plant troubles. A single-cylinder motor is shown for 
simplicity. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the 
derangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. This chart will prove 
of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No 
details omitted. Size 30x20 inches. Price 35 cents 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



AVIATION 

A B C OF AVIATION. By Major Victor W. Page. 

This book describes the basic principles of aviation, tells how a balloon or dirigible 
is made and why it floats in the air. Describes how an airplane flies. It shows in 
detail the different parts of an airplane, what they are and what they do. Describes 
all types of airplanes and how they differ in construction; as well as detailing the. 
advantages and disadvantages of different types of aircraft. It includes a complete 
dictionary of aviation terms and clear drawings of leading airplanes. The reader 
will find simple instructions for unpacking, setting up, and rigging airplanes. A 
full description of airplane control principles is given and methods of flying are dis- 
cussed at length. 

This book answers every question one can ask about modern aircraft, their con- 
struction and operation. A self-educator on aviation without an equal. 274 pages. 
130 specially made illustrations with 7 plates. Price $2.50 

AVIATION ENGINES— DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION; REPAIR. By Major 

Victor W. Page, A.S., S.C.U.S.R. 

This treatise, written by a recognized authority on all of the practical aspects of 
internal combustion engine construction, maintenance, and repair, fills the need as 
no other book does. The matter is logically arranged; all descriptive matter is 
simply expressed and copiously illustrated, so that anyone can understand airplane 
engine operation and repair even if without previous mechanical training. This 
work is invaluable for anyone desiring to become an aviator or aviation mechanic. 
The latest rotary types, such as the Gnome Monosoupape, and LeEhone, are fully 
explained, as well as the recently developed Vee and radial types. The subjects 
of carburetion, ignition, cooling, and lubrication also are covered in a thorough manner. 
The chapters on repair and maintenance are distinctive and found in no other book 
on this subject. Not a technical book, but a practical, easily understood work of 
reference for all interested in aeronautical science. 589 pages. 253 illustrations. 
Price, net $3.00 

GLOSSARY OF AVIATION TERMS — ENGLISH-FRENCH; FRENCH- 
ENGLISH. By Major Victor W. Page, A.S., S.C.U.S.R., and Lieut. 
Paul Montariol, of the French Flying Corps. 

A complete glossary of practically all terms used in aviation, having lists in both 
French and English with equivalents in either language. Price, net . . $1.00 

APPLIED AERODYNAMICS. By G. P. Thompson. 

This is a scientific and mathematical treatise that has a special appeal to the student 
and engineer who are seeking exact information on the aerodynamics of heavier-than- 
air craft and data on airplane d&sign testing. This book gives an up-to-date presen- 
tation of the existing state of Aeronautical Science. In addition to a very full dis- 
cussion of the qualities which determine the speed and rate of climb of an aeroplane 
and the method by which they can be calculated, special attention is paid to stability 
— a problem now fairly well understood, and to controllability — our knowledge of 
which is at present in a much more elementary state. Attention is directed to the 
numerous directions in which further information is required, especially in the form of 
full-scale experiments. 312 pages (7 x 10). Illustrated with over 142 Diagrams 
and Graphic Charts. Price $12.50 

AVIATION CHART— LOCATION OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANT TROUBLES 
MADE EASY. By Major Victor W. Page, A.S., S.C.U.S.R. 

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points 
" where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. In- 
tended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty. 
Price 35 cents 



8 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



BRAZING AND SOLDERING 

BRAZING AND SOLDERING. By James F. Hobaht. 

The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that 
comes along: it tells you what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one. 
Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to 
it much new matter and a large number of tested formulae for all kinds of solders and 
fluxes have been added. Illustrated 35 cents 

SOLDERING AND BRAZING. By Raymond Francis Yates. 

This treatise gives all the necessary "kinks" that will enable one to accomplish suc- 
cessful soldering. If a mechanic has not succeeded in his soldering, this book may 
tell him just what he needs to produce good work — something that he may hereto- 
fore have forgotten. Price 75 cents 



CHARTS 

MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. 

A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of 
the latest type. You get more information from this chart, about the construction and 
operation of a Submarine, than in any other way. No details omitted — everything 
is accurate and to scale. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern Submarine 
Boat are shown 35 cents 

BOX CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and 
its proper name given in a reference list 35 cent* 

GONDOLA CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part of the car numbered 
and its proper reference name given in a reference list 35 cents 

PASSENGER-CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger-car, having every part of the car numbered 
and its proper name given in a reference list 35 cents 

STEEL HOPPER BOTTOM COAL CAR. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a steel Hopper Bottom Coal Car, having every part 
of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 35 cents 

TRACTIVE POWER CHART. 

A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive 
without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and 
steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar 
pull or anything you desire in this line 50 cents 

HORSE-POWER CHART 

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what 
the cylinder diameter of stroke,, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or 
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's ah there. Easy to use, accurate, and 
saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 cents 

BODLER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowler. 

A chart — size 14x28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms be- 
longing in a modern boiler room. The various parts are shown broken or removed, 
so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference 
number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at 
the sides 35 cents 



9 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



CHEMISTRY 

HOW TO MAKE AND USE A SMALL CHEMICAL LABORATORY. By 

Raymond Francis Yates. 

The treatise covers all of the essentials of elementary chemistry. The law of definite 
proportions, solutions, crystalloids, colloids, electrolysis, etc., are explained. The 
second part of the book is devoted to chemical and electro-chemical experiments. 
Only those experiments that will tend to broaden the reader's knowledge of chemistry 
in general have been chosen. Price 75 cents 



CONCRETE 

JUST PUBLISHED— CONCRETE WORKERS' REFERENCE BOOKS. A 
SERIES OF POPULAR HANDBOOKS FOR CONCRETE USERS. 

Prepared by A. A. Houghton Each 75 cents 

The author, in preparing this Series, has not only treated on the usual types of construction, 
but explains and illustrates molds and systems that are not patented, but which are equal 
in value and often superior to those restricted by patents. These molds are very easily and 
cheaply constructed and embody simplicity, rapidity of operation, and the most successful 
results in the molded concrete. Each of these Twelve books is fully illustrated, and the 
subjects are exhaustively treated in plain English. 

CONCRETE WALL FORMS. By A. A. Houghton. 

A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other types of 

wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained. 

(No. 1 of Series) 75 cents 

CONCRETE FLOORS AND SIDEWALKS. By A. A. Houghton. 

The molds for molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and 
sidewalk blocks are fully illustrated and explained. (No. 2 of Series) . . 75 cents 

PRACTICAL CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUCTION. By A. A. Houghton. 

Complete working drawings and specifications are given for several styles of concrete 
silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data, and 
information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing 
all forms of concrete silos. (No. 3 of Series) . . . 75 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE CHIMNEYS, SLATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A. 

Houghton. 

The manufacture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable 
data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The 
construction of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated 
and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds 
are shown in this valuable treatise. (No. 4 of Series.) ....... 75 cents 

MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE. By A. A. Houghton. 

The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the method 
of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive 
treatise on this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value 
(No. 5 of Series.) 75 cents 

CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS^AND BURIAL VAULTS. By 
A. A. Houghton. 

The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is ex- 
plained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cutting in- 
scriptions and designs are also fully treated. (No. 6 of Series.) ... 75 cents 

10 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

MOLDING CONCRETE BATHTUBS, AQUARIUMS AND NATATORIUMS. 
By A. A. Houghton. 

Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bathtubs, 
swimming-pools, etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful 
work. (No. 7 of Series.) 75 cents 

CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEWERS. By A. A. Houghton. 

A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A 
collapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with de 
tailed instructions for building. (No. 8 of Series.) 75 cents 

CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. Houghton. 

A number of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so anyone 
can easily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the pur- 
chase of expensive molds. (No. 9 of Series.) 75 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER-POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC. 

By A. A. Houghton. 

The molds for producing many original designs of flower-pots, urns, flower-boxes, 
jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct 
and operate same. (No. 10 of Series.) 76 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS. By A. 
A. Houghton. 

The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun 
dials and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gar- 
dens, is fully illustrated and described. (No. 11 of Series) 75 cents 

CONCRETE FROM SAND MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. 

A Practical Work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret 
by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of 
ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of 
the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, 
the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density 
and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention 
and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any undercutting the design may have. 
192 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $2.00 

ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE WITHOUT MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. 

The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a 
secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book 
reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical 
method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal tem- 
plates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, Archivolt, 
Column, Pedestal, Base Cap, Urn or Pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. 
These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the specifications 
demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price . $2.00 

CONCRETE FOR THE FARM AND IN THE SHOP. By H. Colin 
Campbell, C.E., E.M. 

A new book illustrating and describing in plain, simple language many of the 
numerous applications of concrete within_the range of the home worker. Among the 
subjects treated are: 

Principles of reinforcing ; methods of protecting concrete so as to insure proper harden- 
ing; home-made mixers; mixing by hand and machine; form construction, described 
and illustrated by drawings and photographs; construction of concrete walls and 
fences; concrete fence posts; concrete gate posts; corner posts; clothes line posts; 
grape arbor posts; tanks; troughs; cisterns; hog wallows; feeding floors and barn- 
yard pavements ; foundations ; well curbs and platforms ; indoor floors ; sidewalks ; steps ; 
concrete hotbeds and cold frames; concrete slab roofs; walls for buildings; repairing 
leaks in tanks and cisterns, etc., etc. A number of convenient and practical tables 
for estimating quantities, and some practical examples, are also given. (5 i7), 
149 pages, 51 illustrations. Price $1.00 

II 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND CONCRETE USERS. By 

Myron H. Lewis. 

This is a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture 
and use of cement in all classes of modern works. The author has brought together 
in this work all the salient matter of interest to the user of concrete and its many 
diversified products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly 
written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to 
the concrete user is given, including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete 
architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, 
working and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters, 430 pages, 126 
illustrations. Price $3.00 

WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By Myron H. Lewis. 

Modern Methods of Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed 
statement of the Principles, Rules, and Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing 
and Dampproofing Structures and Structural Materials. Price .... 75 cents 

DICTIONARIES 



STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conob Sloanb. 

An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the 
student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions in 
about 5000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise 
and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new 
edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress 
of this branch of science. Complete, concise and convenient. Nearly 800 pages. Nearly 
600 illustrations. New Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price $5.00 

DIES— METAL WORK 



DIES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING 
OF SHEET METALS. By J. V. Woodworth. 

A most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged in the pres- 
working of metals; treating on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtures 
and Devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power 
Press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet-metal articles 
now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts at the 
minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of 
Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by 
the use of dies in the power press are fully treated. Its 505 illustrations show dies, 
press fixtures and sheet-metal working devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and 
practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, 
construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either 
constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful 
mechanics and are in use in large sheet-metal establishments and machine shops. 
6th Edition. 400 pages, 523 illustrations. Price $3.50 

PUNCHES, DffiS AND TOOLS FOR MANUFACTURING IN PRESSES. By 
J. V. Woodworth. 

This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies, *B9ielr 
Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die-making to the extent of 
the author's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the field of operations 
carried on by presses. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the 
author's personal experience. It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die-Making, 
Punch-Making, Die-Sinking, Sheet-Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub- 
presses, Devices and Mechanical Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Form- 
ing, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet-Metal Parts, and also Arti- 
cles of other Materials in Machine Tools. 3rd Edition. 483 pages, 702 illustrations. 
Price $4.50 

13 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTIC/X BOOKS 
DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER 

PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Richards and Colvin. 

Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical per- 
spective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand 
a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room, and mistakes in the 
shops. Contains practical examples of various classes of work. 4th Edition. 75 cents 

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By Herman T. C. Kraus. 

This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, 
engineering and mechanical drawings. Persons taking up the study of the subject 
by themselves will be able, by the use of the instruction given, to readily grasp the 
subject, and by reasonable practice become good perspective draftsmen. The arrange- 
ment of the book is good; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text 
follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. The drawings are on 
sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. There is 
included a self-explanatory chart which gives all information necessary for the thorough 
understanding of perspective. This chart alone is worth many times over the price of 
the book. 2d Revised and enlarged Edition $3.00 

SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE 
DESIGN. By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Erik 
Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." 

This is a practical treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising 
the first principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, 
mechanics, strength of materials and the calculations and design of machine details. 
The author's aim has been to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical 
mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a 
manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the 
important elements of machine design have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic 
formulas have been explained, and the elements of trigonometry treated in the manner 
best suited to the needs of the practical man. ■ The book is divided into 20 chapters, 
and in arranging the material, mechanical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken 
up first, as a thorough understanding of the principles of representing objects facilitates 
the further study of mechanical subjects. This is followed by the mathematics neces- 
sary for the solution of the problems in machine design which are presented later, and 
a practical introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The 
various elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket-wheels, 
cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly-wheels, have been 
treated in such a way as to make possible the use of the work as a text-book for a 
continuous course of study. 333 pages, 218 engravings. Price. . . . $2.50 

A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. 

A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric 
perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well 
as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman 
can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, 40 cents. Pads 
of 40 sheets, 9x12 inches, 75 cents; 40 sheets, 12x18, Price $1.50 

ELECTRICITY 



ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloans. 

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all 
of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated 
by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. This book is 
classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity, covering 
as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention 
of those who are not familiar with algebraical formulas. 22nd Edition. 196 pages 
Price $1.50 

13 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. Baxter, Jr. 

The business end of any dynamo or motor of the direct current type is the commutator. 
This book goes into the designing, building, and maintenance of commutators, shows 
how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos 
needs this. 5th Edition 35 cents 

CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSATLANTIC WIRELESS RECEIVING SET. 

By L. G. Pacent and T. S. Curtis. 

A work for the Radio student who desires to construct and operate apparatus that 
will permit of the reception of messages from the large stations in Europe with an 
aerial of amateur proportions. 36 pages. 23 illustrations, cloth. Price . 35 cents 

DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A 
FIFTY-WATT DYNAMO. By Arthur J. Weed, Member of N. Y. Electrical 
Society. 

A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the 
entire machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working 
drawings are given for each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly 
described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when 
used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a 
sewing machine on any and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more 
than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. 
Among the contents are chapters on: 1. Fifty-Watt Dynamo. 2. Side Bearing 
Rods. 3. Field Punching. 4. Bearings. 5. Commutator. 6. Pulley. 7. Brush 
Holders. 8. Connection Board. 9. Armature Shaft. 10. Armature. 11. Armature 
"Winding. 12. Field Winding. 13. Connecting and Starting. Price, cloth, $1.00 

DESIGN DATA FOR RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS. By 

Milton B. Sleeper. 

Far from being a collection of formulas, Design Data takes up in proper sequence the 
problems encountered in planning all types of receiving sets for short, medium and 
long wave work, and spark coil, transformer and vacuum tube transmitters operating 
on 200 meters. Tables have been worked out so that values can be found without 
the use of mathematics. Radio experimenters will find here information which will 
enable them to have the most modern and efficient equipment. Price . . 75 cents 

DYNAMOS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS AND ALL ABOUT THEM. By 

Edward Trevert. 

This volume gives practical directions for building a two H. P. Dynamo of the Edison 
type capable of lighting about fifty mazda lamps of the 20-watt size. In addition, it 
gives directions for building two small electric motors suitable for running sewing 
machines. The concluding chapter describes the construction of a simple bichromate 
battery adapted for running electric motors. 96 pages. Fully illustrated with detail 
drawings. Cloth. Price $1.00 

ELECTRIC BELLS. By M. B. Sleeper. 

A complete treatise for the practical worker in installing, operating, and testing 
bell circuits, burglar alarms, thermostats, and other apparatus used with electric 
bells. Both the electrician and the experimenter will find in this book new material 
which is essential in their work. Tools, bells, batteries, unusual circuits, burglar 
alarms, annunciators, systems, thermostats, circuit breakers, time alarms, and other 
apparatus used in bell circuits are described from the standpoints of their applica- 
tion, construction, and repair. The detailed instructions for building the apparatus 
will appeal to the experimenter particularly. The practical worker will find the 
chapters on Wiring Calculation of Wire Sizes and Magnet Windings, Upkeep of 
Systems and the Location of Faults of the greatest value in their work. 124 pages. 
Fully illustrated. Price 75 cents 

14 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

EXPERIMENTAL HIGH FREQUENCY APPARATUS — HOW TO MAKE 
AND USE IT. By Thomas Stanley Cuhtis. 

This book tells you how to build simple high frequency coils for experimental purpose 
in the home, school laboratory, or on the small lecture platform. The book is really 
a supplement to the same author's "High Frequency Apparatus." The experimental 
side only is covered in this volume, -which is intended for those who want to build 
small coils giving up to an eighteen-inch spark. The book contains valuable in- 
formation for the physics or the manual training teacher who is on the lookout for 
interesting projects for his boys to build or experiment with. The apparatus is 
simple, cheap and perfectly safe, and with it some truly startling experiments may be 
performed. Among the contents are: Induction Coil Outfits Operated on Battery 
Current. Kicking Coil Apparatus. One-Half Kilowatt Transformer Outfit. Parts 
and Materials, etc., etc. 69 pages. Illustrated. Price 50 cents 

HIGH FREQUENCY APPARATUS, ITS CONSTRUCTION AND PRACTICAL 
APPLICATION. By Thomas Stanley Curtis. 

The most comprehensive and thorough work on this interesting subject ever produced. 
The book is essentially practical in its treatment and it constitutes an accurate record 
of the researches of its author over a period of several years, during which time dozens 
of coils were built and experimented with. The work has been divided into six basic 
parts. The first two chapters tell the uninitiated reader what the high frequency 
current is, what it is used for, and how it is produced. The second section, comprising 
four chapters, describes in detail the principles of the transformer, condenser, spark 
gap, and oscillation transformer, and covers the main points in the design and con- 
struction of these devices as applied to the work in hand. The third section covers 
the construction of small high frequency outfits designed for experimental work in the 
home laboratory or in the classroom. The fourth section is devoted to electro- 
therapeutic and X-Ray apparatus. The fifth describes apparatus for the cultivation 
of plants and vegetables. The sixth section is devoted to a comprehensive discussion 
of apparatus of large size for use upon the stage in spectacular productions. The 
closing chapter, giving the current prices of the parts and materials required for the 
construction of the apparatus described, is included with a view to expediting the 
purchase of the necessary goods. The Second Edition includes much new matter 
along the line of home-made therapeutic outfits for physicians' use. The matter on 
electro plant culture has also been elaborated upon. Second Revised and Enlarged 
Edition. 266 pages. New second edition. Fully illustrated. Price . $3.00 

ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By Newton 
Harrison. 

A thoroughly practical treatise covering the subject of Electric Wiring in all its branches, 
including explanations and diagrams which are thoroughly explicit and greatly simplify 
the subject. Practical, every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method 
of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used. Ohm's law 
is given a simple explanation with reference to wiring for direct and alternating 
currents. The fundamental principle of drop of potential in circuits is shown with its 
various applications. The simple circuit is developed with the position of mains, 
feeders and branches; their treatment as a part of a wiring plan and their employ- 
ment in house wiring clearly illustrated. Some simple facts about testing are included 
in connection with the wiring. Molding and conduit work are given careful considera- 
tion; and switchboards are systematically treated, built up and illustrated, showing 
the purpose they serve, for connection with the circuits, and to shunt and compound 
wound machines. The simple principles of switchboard construction, the develop- 
ment of the switchboard, the connections of the various instruments, including the 
lightning arrester, are also plainly set forth. 

Alternating current wiring is treated, with explanations of the power factor, conditions 
calling for various sizes of wire, and a simple way of obtaining the sizes for single-phase, 
two-phase and three-phase circuits. This is the only complete work issued showing 
and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It 
is a ready reference. The work is free from advanced technicalities and mathematics, 
arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well-written, 
instructive, comprehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor, 
or electrician. 3rd edition, revised and enlarged. 315 pages; 137 illustrations. 
Price $2.50 

IS 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILDING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR 
CONSTRUCTION. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, 
dynamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of 
young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work 
is especially designed for amateurs and young folks. 

Thousands of our young people are daily experimenting, and busily engaged in making 
electrical toys and apparatus of various kinds. The present work is just what is want- 
ed to give the much needed information in a plain, practical manner, with illustrations 
to make easy the carrying out of the work. 20th Edition. 210 pages, 77 illustrations. 
Price $1.50 

ELECTRICIANS' HANDY BOOK. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

This work is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The 
entire Qeld of electricity is covered within its pages. Among some of the subjects treated 
are: The Theory of the Electric Current and Circuit, Electro-Chemistry, Primary 
Batteries, Storage Batteries, Generation and Utilization of Electric Powers, Alter- 
nating Current, Armature Winding, Dynamos and Motors, Motor Generators, 
Operation of the Central Station Switchboards, Safety Appliances, Distribution 
of Electric Light and Power, Street Mains, Transformers, Arc and Incandescent 
Lighting, Electric Measurements, Photometry, Electric Railways, Telephony, Bell- 
Wiring, Electric-Plating, Electric Heating, Wireless Telegraphy, etc. It contains no 
useless theory; everything is to the point. It teaches you just what you want to 
know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Forty- 
six chapters, 600 engravings. New 5th Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Price $4.00 

ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and 
to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of 
different metal, immersed in acid, can send a message around the globe; to explain 
how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting 
our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension 
mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of 
electricity. 15th Revised Edition. 218 pages. Illustrated. Price . . $1.50 

EXPERIMENTAL WTRELESS STATIONS. By P. E. Edelman. 

The theory, design, construction and operation is fully treated including Wireless 
Telephony, Vacuum Tube, and quenched spark systems. The new enlarged edition 
is just issued and is strictly up to date, correct and complete. This book tells 
how to make apparatus to not only hear all telephoned and telegraphed radio mes- 
sages, but also how to make simple equipment that works for transmission over rea- 
sonably long distances. Then there is a host of new information included. The 
first and only book to give you all the recent important radio improvements, some 
oi which have never before been published. This volume anticipates every need of 
the reader who wants the gist of the art, its principles, simplified calculations, appara- 
tus dimensions, and understandable directions for efficient operation. 
Vacuum tube circuits; amplifiers; long-distance sets; loop, coil, and underground 
receivers; tables of wave-lengths, capacity, inductance; such are a few of the sub- 
jects presented in detail that satisfies. It is independent and one of the few that 
describe all modern systems. 

Endorsed by foremost instructors for its clear accuracy, preferred by leading amateurs 
for its dependable designs. The new experimental Wireless Stations is sure 
to be most satisfactory for your purposes. 27 chapters, 392 pages. 167 illustra- 
tions. Price $3.00 

RADIO TIME SIGNAL RECEIVER. By Austin C. Lescarboura. 

This new book, "A Radio Time Signal Receiver," tells you how to build a simple 
outfit designed expressly for the beginner. You can build the outfits in your own 
workshop and install them for jewelers either on a one-payment or a rental basis. 
The apparatus is of such simple design that it may be made by the average amateur 
mechanic possessing a few ordinary tools. 42 pages. Paper. Price . . 35 cents 

16 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

HOUSE WIRING. By Thomas W. Poppe. 

This work describes and illustrates the actual installation of Electric Light Wiring, 
the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The book 
can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helps, 
and Apprentice. It solves all Wiring Problems and contains nothing that conflicts 
with the rulings of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. It gives just the informa- 
tion essential to the Successful Wiring of a Building. Among the subjects treated are 
Locating the Meter. Panel Boards. Switches. Plug Receptacles. Brackets. Ceiling 
Fixtures. The Meter Connections. The Feed Wires. The Steel Armored Cable 
System. The Flexible Steel Conduit System. The Ridig Conduit System. A digest 
of the National Board of Fire Underwriters' rules relating to metallic wiring systems. 
Various switching arrangements explained and diagrammed. The easiest method or 
testing the Three- and Four-way circuits explained. The grounding of all metallic 
wiring systems and the reason for doing so shown and explained. The insulation of 
the metal parts of lamp fixtures and the reason for the same described and illustrated. 
208 pages. 4th Edition, revised and enlarged. 160 illustrations. Flexible cloth. 
Price $1.00 

HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICIAN. By Prof. T. O'Conor 

Sloane. 

Every young man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book. 
It tells in simple language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. 
The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirement, 
of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young en- 
gineer will find this an excellent stepping stone to more advanced works on electricity 
which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become dis- 
couraged at the very outstart by attempting to read and study books that are far 
beyond their comprehension. This book serves as the connecting link between the 
rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study of electricity. It is inter- 
esting from cover to cover. 19th Revised Edition, just issued. 205 pages. Illus- 
trated. Price $1.50 

RADIO HOOK-UPS. By Milton B. Sleeper. 

In this book the best circuits for different instruments and various purposes have been 
carefully selected and grouped together. All the best circuits for damped and un- 
damped wave receiving sets, buzzer.jspark coil and transformer sending equipment, as 
well as vacuum tube telegraph and telephone transmitters, wavemeters, vacuum tube 
measuring instruments, audibility meters, etc., are shown in this book. . 75 cents 

STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloane. 

An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the 
student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions 
of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and 
concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An en- 
tirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with 
the progress of this branch of science. In its arrangement and typography the book 
is very convenient. The word or term denned is printed in black-faced type which 
readily catches the eye, while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The 
definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader. 
The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify 
and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and references to other 
words and phrases are made. A very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is 
at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases 
are indexed in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place 
in the body of the book is readily made. It is difficult to decide how far a book of 
this character is to keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the 
encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed ; 
for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy 
both demands, and does it with considerable success. Complete, concise and con- 
venient. 800 pages. Nearly 500 illustrations. New Revised and Enlarged Edition 
Price $5.00 

17 



CATALOGUE uF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

STORAGE BATTERIES SIMPLIFIED. By Victor W. Page, M.S.A.E. 

A complete treatise on storage battery operating principles, repairs and applications. 
The greatly increasing application of storage batteries in modern engineering and 
mechanical work has created a demand for a book that will consider this subject 
completely and exclusively. This is the most thorough and authoritative treatise 
ever published on this subject. It is written in easily understandable, non-technical 
language so that anyone may grasp the basic principles of storage battery action as 
■well as their practical industrial apphcations. All electric and gasoline automobiles 
use storage batteries. Every automobile repairman, dealer or salesman should have a 
good knowledge of maintenance and repair of these important elements of the motor 
car mechanism. This book not only tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage 
batteries but also outlines all the industrial uses. Learn how they run street cars, 
locomotives and factory trucks. Get an understanding of the important functions they 
perform in submarine boatsMsolated lighting plants, railway switch and signal systems, 
marine apphcations, etc. This book tells how they are used in central station standby 
service, for starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. Every practical use 
of the modern storage battery is outlined in this treatise. 208 pages. Fully illus- 
trated. Price $2.00 

TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION, WIRING, OPERATION 
AND MAINTENANCE. By W. H. Radcliffb and H. G. Cushing. __ 

This book is intended for the amateur, the wireman, or the engineer who desires to 
establish a means of telephonic communication between the rooms of his home, office, 
or shop. It deals only with such things as may be of use to him rather than with 
theories. 

Gives the principles of construction and operation of both the Bell and Independent 
instruments ; approved methods of installing and wiring them ; the means of protecting 
them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation 
as series or bridging stations ; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line 
wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. 
Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thor- 
oughly described. The appendix contains definitions of units and terms used in the 
text. Selected wiring tables, which are very helpful, are also included. Among the 
eubjects treated are Construction, Operation, and Installation of Telephone Instru- 
ments; Inspection and Maintenance of Telephone Instruments; Telephone Line 
Wiring; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables ; Wiring and Operation of Special 
Telephone Systems, etc. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged. 223 pages. 154 
illustrations , $1.50 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By 
Alfred P. Morgan. 

This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensible treatises on the 
subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the 
details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long-felt 
■want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple 
language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. 
Among the contents are: Introductory; Wireless Transmission and Reception — The 
Aerial System, Earth Connections — The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and 
Transformers, Condensers, Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches — The 
Receiving Apparatus, Detectors, etc. — Tuning and Coupling, Tuning Coils, Loose 
Couplers, Variable Condensers, Directive Wave Systems — Miscellaneous Apparatus, 
Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations, Static Interference — Wireless Telephones, 
Sound and Sound Waves, The Vocal Cords and Ear — Wireless Telephone, How Sounds 
Are Changed into Electric Waves — Wireless Telephones, The Apparatus — Summary. 
154 pages. 156 engravings. Price $1.50 

WIRING A HOUSE. By Herbert Pratt. 

Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; 
what wire to use; how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact, just the informa- 
tion you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition . . 35 cent« 

18 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



ELECTROPLATING 



tHE MODERN ELECTROPLATER. By Kenneth M. Coggeshall. 

This is one of the most complete and practical books on electroplating and allied 
processes that has been published as a text for the student or professional plater. 
It is written in simple language and explains all details of electroplating in a concise 
yet complete manner. It starts at the beginning and gives an elementary outline 
of electricity and chemistry as relates to plating, then considers shop layout and 
equipment and gives all the necessary information to do reliable and profitable electro- 
plating in a modern commercial manner. Full instructions are given for the prepara- 
tion and finishing of the work and formulae and complete directions are included for 
making all kinds of plating solutions, many of these having been trade secrets until 
published in this instruction manual. Anyone interested in practical plating and 
metal finishing will find this book a valuable guide and complete manual of the art. 
Cloth. 142 illustrations. 276 pages. Price $3.00 



FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC. 

MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND 
MANAGEMENT. By O. E. Perrigo, M.E. 

The only work published that describes the modern machine shop or manufacturing 
plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished 
product is snipped. By a careful study of its thirty-six chapters the practical man 
may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine 
shop or manufacturing establishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating 
the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, 
or the introduction of modern shop methods, time and cost systems. It is a book 
written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too 
busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its 
kind ever published. It is a practical book for practical men, from the apprentice in 
the shop to the president in the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most 
simple and yet the most efficient time and cost system yet devised. 384 pages. 219 
illustrations. Price , $5.00 



FUEL 



COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 
M. Barr. 



By Wm. 



This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the 
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly 
With the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous 
Coals in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. 

The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The ar- 
rangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended 
accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several 
processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the 
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace 
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of 
coal. 5th Edition. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price. . , . $1.50 

19 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



GAS AND OIL ENGINES 

THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR 
AND USES. By Xeno W. Putnam. 

This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene Engine intended for the man 
■who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply it to all kinds of 
farm work to the best advantage. 

This book abounds with hints and helps for the farm and suggestions for the home 
and housewife. There is so much of value in this book that it is impossible to ade- 
quately describe it in such small space. Suffice to say that it is the kind of a book 
every farmer will appreciate and every farm home ought to have. Includes selecting 
the most suitable engine for farm work, its most convenient and efficient installation, 
with chapters on troubles, their remedies, and how to avoid them. The care and 
management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road grading 
are fully covered ; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road. 
Special attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to 
the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many home- 
made contrivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen, garden, and barn with water, 
loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough 
are included; also full directions for making the engine milk the cows, churn, wash, 
sweep the house and clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of 
working parts and cuts showing Stationary, Portable and Tractor Engines doing all 
kinds of farm work. All money-making farms utilize power. Learn how to utilize 
power by reading the pages of this book. It is an aid to the result getter, invaluable 
to the up-to-date farmer, student, blacksmith, implement dealer and, in fact, all who 
can apply practical knowledge of stationary gasoline engines or gas tractors to advan- 
tage. 530 pages. Nearly 180 engravings. Price $3.00 

GASOLINE ENGINES : THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. Hyatt 

Vebbill. 

The simplest, latest and most comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline 
Engines, describing what the Gasoline Engine is; its construction and operation; how 
to install it; how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encountered. 
Intended for Owners, Operators and Users of Gasoline Motors of all kinds. This 
work fully describes and illustrates the various types of Gasoline Engines used in 
Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and. Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and 
appliances are described, with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and 
engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and repair of motors, 
with useful hints and suggestions on emergency repairs and makeshifts. A complete 
glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table of troubles and their 
symptoms form most valuable and unique features of this manual. Nearly every 
illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is 
full of interest and value. A book which you cannot afford to be without. 275 pages. 
152 specially made engravings. Price _. $2.00 

GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. By Gardner D. Hiscox. 

Just issued, 23d revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this 
book. Simple, instructive, and right up-to-date. The only complete work on the 
subject. Tells all about the running and management of gas, gasoline and oil engines, 
as designed and manufactured in the United States. Explosive motors for stationary 
marine and vehicle power are fully treated, together with illustrations of their parts 
and tabulated sizes, also their care and running are included. Electric ignition by 
induction coil and jump spark are fully explained and illustrated, including valuable 
information on the testing for economy and power and the erection of power plants. 
The rules and regulations of the Board of Fire Underwriters in regard to the installation 
and management of gasoline motors are given in full, suggesting the safe installation 
of explosive motor power. A list of United States Patents issued on gas, gasoline, and 
oil engines and their adjuncts from 1875 to date is included. 640 pages. 435 engrav- 
ings. Folding plates. Price $3.00 

20 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



GAS ENGINES AMTPRODUCER-GAS PLANTS. By R. E. Mathot, M.E. 

This is a practical treatise, setting forth the principles of gas engine and producer 
design, the selection and installation of an engine, conditions of perfect operation, 
producer-gas engines and their possibilities; the care of gas engines and producer-gas 
plants, with a chapter on volatUe hydrocarbon and oil engines. A practical guide for 
the gas engine designer, user and engineer in the construction, selection, purchase, in- 
stallation, operation and maintenance of gas engines. Every part of the gas engine is de- 
scribed in detail, tersely, clearly and with a thorough understanding of the requirements of 
the mechanic. Recognizing the need of a volume that would assist the gas engine 
user in understanding the motor upon which he depends for power, the author has 
discussed the subject without the help of any mathematics. Helpful suggestions as to 
the purchase of an engine, its installation, care and operation, form a most valuable 
feature of the book. 6x9inches. Cloth. 314 pages. 152 illustrations. Price. .$3.00 

GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, OR HOW TO BUILD A HALF-HORSE- 
POWER GAS ENGINE. By Parsell and Weed. 

A practical treatise of 300 pages describing the theory and principles of the action of 
Gas Engines of various types and the design and construction of a half-horse-power 
Gas Engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with the dimen- 
sioned working drawings, giving clearly the sizes of the various details; for the student, 
the scientific investigator, and the amateur mechanic. This book treats of the subject 
more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory. The principles of operation 
of Gas Engines are clearly and simply described, and then the actual construction of a 
half-horse-power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of the 
Gas Engine. 3d Edition. 300 pages. Price $3.00 

HOW TO RUN AND INSTALL GASOLINE ENGINES. By C. Von Culin. 

Revised and enlarged edition just issued. The object of this little book is to furnish 
a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who uses an engine for pleasure or 
profit, but who does not have the time or inclination for a technical book, but simply 
to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and care for his own engine. 
The index refers to each trouble, remedy, and subject alphabetically. Being a quick 
reference to find the cause, remedy and prevention for troubles, and to become an 
expert with his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price . . 35 cents 



GEARING AND CAMS 

BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. Ag. Engstrom. 

A book that will at once commend itself to mechanics and draftsmen. Does away 
with all the trigonometry and fancy figuring on bevel gears, and makes it easy for any- 
one to lay them out or make them just right. There are 36 full-page tables that 
show every necessary dimension for all sizes or combinations you're apt to need. No 
puzzling, figuring or guessing. Gives placing distance, all the anales (including 
cutting angles), and the correct cutter to use. A copy of this prepares you for any- 
thing in the bevel-gear line. 3d Edition. 66 pages $1.50 

CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By Oscar E. Perrigo. 

A practical book for every designer, draftsman, and mechanic interested in the inven- 
tion and development of the devices for feed changes on the different machines requir- 
ing such mechanism. All the necessary information on this subject is taken up, 
analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the 
time to go through the masses of irrelevant matter with which such a subject is usu- 
ally encumbered and select such information as will be useful to them. 
It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who 
did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old ideas. 3rd 
Edition. 101 pages $1.50 

DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis Rouillion. 

The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. 
This puts you on the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run 
up against. 3d Edition 35 cent! 

21 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



HYDRAULICS 

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By Gardner D. Hiscox. 

A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including 
the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power 
of falling water, turbine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, recipro- 
cating and air-lift pumps. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. 
All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful ono, 
because it is an entirely practical treatise upon a subject of present importance, and 
cannot fail in having a far-reaching influence, and for this reason should have a place 
in the working library of every engineer. Among the subjects treated are: Historical 
Hydraulics, Properties of Water, Measurement of the Flow of Streams; Flow- 
ing Water Suface Orifices and Nozzles; Flow of Water in Pipes; Siphons of Various 
Kinds: Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; Wells 
and Their Reinforcement; Air Lift Methods of Raising Water; Artesian Wells, 
Irrigation of Arid Districts; Water Power; Water- Wheels; Pumps and Pumping 
Machinery; Reciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic 
Mining; Canals; Dredges; Conduits and Pipe Lines; Marine Hydraulics; Tidal and 
Sea Wave Power, etc. 320 pages. Price $4.50 



ICE AND REFRIGERATION 



POCKETBOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING. By A. J. 

Wallis-Taylor. 

This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the 
subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating 
effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the 
construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different 
degrees of cold ; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms 
for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making 
and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, 
with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and con- 
dition required in the installment and operation of a refrigerating plant. New 
edition just published. Price . $2.00 



INVENTIONS— PATENTS 

INVENTORS' MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY. 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking 
out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's 
Circular nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. No advertisements of any description 
appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a 
successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other 
inventors. 

Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a 
Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to Exhibit an Invention. How to 
Interest Capital. How to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Design Patents. 
Value of Foreign Patents. Value of Small Inventions. Advice on Selling Patents. 
Advice on the Formation of Stock Companies. Advice on the Formation of Limited 
Liability Companies. Advice on Disposing of Old Patents. Advice as to Patent 
Attorneys. Advice as to Selling Agents. Forms of Assignments. License and Con- 
tracts. State Laws Concerning Patent Rights. 1900 Census of the United States by 
Counts of Over 10,000 Population. New revised and enlarged edition. 144 pages. 
Illustrated. Price. . $1.60 

22 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



KNOTS 

KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. Hyatt Vermll. 

This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most 
useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, 
Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with one hundred and fifty 
original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appear- 
ance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to Campers, Yachts- 
men, Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope 
or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not 
only a guide, but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the 
contents are: 1. Cordage, Bands of Bope. Construction of Bope, Parts of Bope 
Cable and Bolt Bope. Strength of Bope, Weight of Bope. 2. Simple Knots ana 
Bends. Terms Used in Handling Bope. Seizing Bope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4. 
Noose, Loops and Mooring Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Salvages. 6. 
Lashings, Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Bope Work. 104 pages. 154 
original engravings. Price $1.00 

LATHE WORK 

LATHE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION, WITH PRACTICAL 
EXAMPLES OF LATHE WORK. By Oscar E. Perrigo. 

A new revised edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, written 
by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how 
to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its 
descriptions and illustrations. Lathe history and the relations of the lathe to manu- 
facturing are given; also a description of the various devices for feeds and thread 
cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe 
design is thoroughly discussed, including back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting 
gears, and all the essential elements of the modern lathe. 1 he classification of lathes 
is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of lathes including, 
as is usually understood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap 
lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, multiple-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathe3, 
precision lathes, turret lathes, special lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. In addi- 
tion to the complete exposition on construction and design, much practical matter on 
lathe installation, care and operation has been incorporated in the enlarged 1915 edi- 
tion. All kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, millin g, etc., are described and 
complete instructions are given to enable the novice machinist to grasp the art of lathe 
operation as well as the principles involved in design. A number of difficult machining 
operations are described at length and illustrated. The new edition has nearly 500 
pages and 350 illustrations. Price $3.00 

LATHE WORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Raymond Francis Yates. 

A simple, straightforward textbook for those desiring to learn the operation of a 
wood-turning or metal-turning lathe. The first chapter tells how to choose a lathe 
and all of the standard types on the market are described. Simple and more advanced 
lathe work is thoroughly covered and the operation of all lathe attachments such as 
millers, grinders, polishers, etc., is described. The treatment starts from the very 
bottom and leads the reader through to a point where he will be able to handle the 
larger commercial machines with very little instruction. The last chapter of the 
book is devoted to things to make on the lathe and includes a model rapid-fire naval 
gun. This is the only book published in this country that treats lathe work from 
the standpoint of the amateur mechanic. 162 illustrations. About 250 pages, 12mo. 
Price $2.00 

TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. By Fred H. Colvtn. 

There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has 
to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the 
lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things 
that you should know. Fiftfc edition. Price 35 cents 

23 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



LIQUID AIR 

' IQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. By T. O'Conoe Sloane. 
This book gives the history of the theory, discovery, and manufacture of Liquid Air, 
and contains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the 
wonder of audiences all over the country. It shows how liquid air, like water, is 
carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be ex- 
pected from it in the near future. . 

A book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the 
century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experiments. 
It is not only a work of scientific interest and authority, but is intended for the general 
reader, being written in a popular style — easily understood by everyone. Third 
edition. Bevised and Enlarged. 394 pages. New Edition. Price . , , $3.00 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



AIR-BRAKE CATECHISM. By Robert H. Blackall. 

This book is a standard text-book. It covers the Westinghouse Air-Brake Equipment, 
including the No. 5 and the No. 6 E. T. Locomotive Brake Equipment; the K (Quick 
Service) Triple Valve for Freight Service; and the Cross-Compound Pump. The 
opera ;ion of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail, and a practical way of 
finding their peculiarities and defects, with a proper remedy, is given. It contains 
2,000 questions with their answers, which will enable any railroad man to pass any 
examination on the subject of Air Brakes. Endorsed and used by air-brake instruc- 
tors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. 28th Edition. 411 
pages, fully illustrated with colored plates and diagrams. Price $2.50 

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm. 

M. Barr. 

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by tha 
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States and deals particularly 
with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous 
coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. 

Presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The ar- 
rangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended 
accurate answers, which describe in language free from technicalities the several 
processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the 
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace 
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of 
coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price $1.50 

DIARY OF A ROUND-HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. Reillt. 

This is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. Containing a fund of 
information and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one 
cannot afford to miss. 158 pages. Price $1.50 

LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. By Fred H. Colvin, 
Associate Editor of American Machinist. 
A handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve 
setting. Shows the different valve gears in use. how they work, and why. Piston 
and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every 
railroad man in the motive power department ought to haye. Contains chapters on 
Locomotive Link Motion, Valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by 
Diagrams, Modern Practice, Slip of Block, Slice Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston 
Valves, Joy- Allen Valve Gear, TValschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alfree- 
' Hubbell Valve Gear, etc, etc. 3rd Edition, 101 cages. Fully illustrated. Price 

75 cents 

24 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By Frank A. Kleinhans. 

The construction of boilers in general is treated, and, following this, the locomotive 
boiler is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the shop. Shows 
all types of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of 
riveting, punches and dies; work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging 
sheets, and other data. Including the recent Locomotive Boiler Inspection Laws 
and Examination Questions with their answers for Government Inspectors. Contains 
chapters on Laying Out Work; Flanging and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate 
Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting; 
Boiler Details; Smoke Box Details; Assembling and Calking; Boiler Shop 
Machinery, etc., etc. 

There isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work, 
who doesn't need this book. The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman, and boiler 
worker — all need it. No matter what the type of boiler, you'll find a mint of informa- 
tion that you wouldn't be without. 451 pages, 334 illustrations, five large folding 
plates. Price $3.50 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By Geo. L. 

Fowler. Revised by Wm, W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. 
Revised pocket edition. 

It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this 
pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles 
that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected 
ones, troubles that could occur, but that you have never thought about, and you will 
find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repaij. Walschaert 
Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions 
and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 293 pages. 8th Revised Edition. 
Fully illustrated $1.50 

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE 
FIREMEN AND ENGINEERS. By Chas. F. Lockhart. 

An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it 
tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who 
has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and 
running. The information given in this book cannot be found in any other similar 
treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, 
which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. Practical 
information on: The Construction and Operation of Locomotives; Breakdowns and 
their Remedies; Air Brakes and Valve Gears. Rules and Signals are handled in a 
thorough manner. As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided 
into six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 2. General Description of the 
Locomotive. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts 
from Standard Rules. 6. Questions for Examination. The 851 questions have been 
carefully selected and arranged. These cover the examinations required by the 
different railroads. 368 pages. 88 illustrations. Price $2.50 

PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. 

By George Bradshaw. 

This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not 
theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents 
occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original 
photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No vision- 
ary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and Practical Suggestions are given. 
Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in 
railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing 
many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy; read it 
and do your part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated 
Price 50 cents 

25 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOO KS 

TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. By G. E. Collingwood. 

This is the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and 
puzzling points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, making it ? practical 
treatise for the Train Dispatcher, Engineman, Trainman, and all others who have to 
do with the movements of trains. Contains complete and reliable information of the 
Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows Signals in Colors, as used on 
the different roads. Explains fully the practical application of train orders, giving a 
clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and 
necessity for certain rules are explained in such a manner that the student may know 
beyond a doubt the rights conferred under any orders be may receive or the action 
required by certain rules. As nearly all roads require trainmen to pass regular exami- 
nations, a complete set of examination questions, with their answers, are included. 
These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to himself 
and the road for which he works. Second Edition revised. 234 pages. Fully illus- 
trated with Train Signals in Colors. Price $1.50 

THE WALSCHAERT AND OTHER MODERN RADIAL VALVE GEARS FOR 
LOCOMOTIVES. By Wm. W. Wood. 

If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a 
copy of this book, as the author takes the plainest form of a steam engine — a stationary 
engine in the rough, that will only turn its crank in one direction — and from it builds 
up — with the reader's help — a modern locomotive equipped with the Walschaert 
"Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated ; two large folding 
plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, *s 
well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points 
in its revolution, are especially valuable in making the movement clear. These employ 
sliding cardboard models which are contained in a pocket in the cover. 
The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: 1. Analysis of the gear. 
2. Designing and erecting the gear. 3. Advantages of the gear. 4. Questions and 
answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. 5. Setting valves with the Wal- 
schaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion; modern 
radial valve gears other than the Walschaert; the Hobart All-free Valve and Valve 
Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns; the Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear; the 
Improved Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear', with questions and answers on breakdowns. 
The questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engi- 
neers in preparing for an examination for promotion. 245 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Third Revised New Edition. Price $2.50 

RHESTINGHOUSE E-T AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTION POCKET BOOK. By 

Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. 

Here is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. It is without 
doubt the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake 
Equipment. Written by an Air-Brake Instructor who knows just what is needed. It 
covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghouse Engine and 
Tender Brake Equipment, including the standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6 
style of brake, is treated in detail. Written in plain English and profusely illustrated 
with Colored Plates, which enable one to trace the flow of pressures throughout the 
entire equipment. The best book ever published on the Air Brake. Equally good for 
the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass anyone through any examination. 
It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable to every engineman and 
trainman. 

Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what 
the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a 
question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion, on either the No. 5 or the 
No. 6 E-T equipment, that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to 
thoroughly understand the E-T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every 
detail. Makes Air-Brake troubles and examinations easy. Second Revised and 
Enlarged Edition. Price $2.50 



26 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



MACHINE-SHOP PRACTICE 

AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTERCHANGEABLE MANUFACTUR- 
ING. By J. V. Woodworth. 

A "shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, no problematical or experimental devices, 
there are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a 
valuable collection of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich fruits of the author's 
own experience. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and what- 
ever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete 
practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable 
manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and 
illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and 
special appliances which are in general use in all machine-manufacturing and metal- 
working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeability in the pro- 
duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaus- 
tively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling 
fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened 
within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and de- 
scribed have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill 
presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical apparatus, mechanical ap- 
pliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal articles, drop- 
forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 3rd Edition. 531 pages. Price $4.50 

MACHINE-SHOP ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Cheney. 

This is an arithmetic of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly 
about: how to find areas in figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres; 
handy ways for calculating; about compound gearing; cutting screw threads on any 
lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills; taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling 
cutters, etc.; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals; 
strength of bolts and nuts; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine-shop 
figuring and 1,001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than 
the price of this book to you, and it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 7th 
edition. 131 pages. Price 75 cents 

MODERN MACHINE-SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MAN- 
AGEMENT. By Oscar E. Perrigo. 

The only work published that describes the Modern Shop or Manufacturing Plant 
from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product 
is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop 
buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern 
Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a prac- 
tical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. 
It is the most complete all-round book of its kind ever published. . 384 pages. 
219 original and specially-made illustrations. Revised and Enlarged Edition. 
Price $5.00 

" SHOP KINKS." By Robert Grimshaw. 

A book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different from any other 
book on machine-shop practice. Departing from conventional style, the author 
avoids universal or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special ways 
of doing things better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the 
advanced methods of representative establishments of the world are placed at the 
disposal of the reader. This book shows the proprietor where large savings are possible, 
and how products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that, 
properly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it. 
it bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from 
apprentice to proprietor. 5th edition. Price $3.00 

THREADS AND THREAD-CUTTING. By Colvin and Stabel. 

This clears up many of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple 
threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful 
bints and several tables. 4th edition. Price ._. 86 cents 

27 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS 
COVERED BY MR. HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS 



We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing" things 
that have been done before, and suggest ways of doing things that you have not thought of 
before. Many a man spends time and -money, pondering over some mechanical problem, 
only to learn, after he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished 
and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accom- 
plish what has already been accomplished are time and money LOST. The whole field 
of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device is covered 
by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If 
it hasn't been invented, then you'll find in them the nearest things to what you want, some 
movements or devices that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key 
from which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the 
Inventor, Draftsman, or practical Mechanic than the two volumes described below. 

MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS, AND DEVICES. By Gardnee D. 
Hiscox. 

This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, 
accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, 
the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into 
eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under the follow- 
ing heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmission of Power; Measurement of Power; 
Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navigation 
and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Controlling Motion; Horological; 
Mining; Mill and Factory Appliances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; 
Miscellaneous Devices, etc. 15th_edition enlarged. 400 octavo pages. Price . $4.00 

MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS AND NOVEL- 
TIES OF CONSTRUCTION. By Gardner D. Hiscox. 

This is a supplementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the 
first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations 
and descriptions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and 
appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a Una 
drawing with a description showing its working parts and the method of operation. 
From the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be mentioned, in 
passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various 
types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and 
other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air- 
ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, 
car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy 
guns, and a large accumulation of others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made 
engravings. 396 octavo pages. 4th Edition enlarged. Price $4.00 

SHOP PRACTICE FOR HOME MECHANICS. By Raymond Francis Yates. 

A thoroughly practical and helpful treatment prepared especially for those who have 
had little or no experience in shop work. The introduction is given over to an ele- 
mentary explanation of the fundamentals of mechanical science. This is followed 
by several chapters on the use of smaU tools and mechanical measuring instruments. 
Elementary and more advanced lathe work is treated in detail and directions given 
for the construction of a number of useful shop appliances. Drilling and reaming, 
heat treatment of tool steel, special lathe operations, pattern making, grinding, and 
grinding operations, home foundry work, etc., make up the rest of the volume. The 
book omits nothing that will be of use to those who use tools or to those who wish 
to learn the use of tools The great number of clear engravings (over 300) add 
tremendously to the text matter and to the value of the volume as a visual instructor. 
Octavo, 320 pages, 309 engravings. Price , ,,,,,,.... $3.00 



28 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRACTICE. By W. H. Vandervoort. 

A work of 552 pages and 672 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, 
operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters 
on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe 
and its tools; planers, shapers. and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear 
cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and 
their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; 
useful data and tables. 7th Edition. 552 pages. 672 illustrations. Price $4.50 

COMPLETE PRACTICAL MACHINIST. By Joshua Rose. 

The new, twentieth revised and enlarged edition is now ready. This is one of the 
best-known books on machine-shop work, and written for the practical workman 
in the language of the workshop. It gives full, practical instructions on the use of 
all kinds of metal-working tools, both hand and machine, and tells how the work 
should be properly done. It covers lathe work, vise work, drills and drilling, taps 
and dies, hardening and tempering, the making and use of tools, tool grinding, mark- 
ing out work, machine tools, etc. No machinist's library is complete without this 
Tolume. 20th Edition. 547 pages. 432 illustrations. Price .... $3.00 

HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED 
TRADES. Edited by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. 

This book covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The 
best known experts in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes. 
The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self- 
taught practical man, as well as the mechanical engineer, designer, draftsman, shop 
superintendent, foreman and machinist. 

It is a modem treatise in five volumes. Handsomely bound in half morocco, each 
volume containing nearly 500 pages, with thousands of illustrations, including dia- 
grammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. Five large volumes. 
Price $30.00 

MODEL MAKING Including Workshop Practice, Design and Construction of 
Models. Edited by Raymond F. Yates. Editor of "Everyday Engineering 
Magazine." 

This book will help you to become a better mechanic. It is full of suggestions for those 
who like to make things, amateur and professional alike. It has been prepared es- 
pecially for men with mechanical hobbies. Some may be engineers, machinists, jew- 
elers, pattern makers, office clerks or bank presidents. Men from various walks of 
life have a peculiar interest in model engineering. Model Making will be a help and 
an inspiration to such men. It tells them "how-to-do" and "how-to-make" things 
in simple, understandable terms. Not only this, it is full of good, clear working 
drawings and photographs of the models and apparatus described. Each model has 
been constructed and actually works if it is made according to directions. 379 pages. 
300 illustrations. Price $3.00 

ABRASIVES AND ABRASIVE WHEELS. By Fred B. Jacobs. 

A new book for everyone interested in abrasives or grinding. A careful reading of 
the book will not only make mechanics better able to use abrasives intelligently, but 
it will also tell the shop superintendent of many short cuts and efficiency-increasing 
kinks. The economic advantages in using large grinding wheels are fully explained 
together with many other things that will tend to give the superintendent or workman 
a keen insight into abrasive engineering. 340 pages. 174 illustrations. This is an 
indispensable book for every machinist. Price $3.00 

HOME MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COMPANION. By Andrew Jackson, Jr. 

This treatise includes a compilation of useful suggestions that cannot fail to interest 
the handy man, and while it is not intended for mechanical experts or scientists, it will 
prove to be a veritable store of information for anyone who desires to rig up a small 
shop where odd jobs can be carried on. Price 75 cents 

29 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

MARINE ENGINEERING 

THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKETBOOK. Of 

Formulae, Rules, and Tables and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy 
Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow and Lloyd Woollard. 

The twelfth revised and enlarged edition of this most comprehensive work has just 
been issued. It is absolutely indispensable to all engaged in the Shipbuilding Industry, 
as it condenses into a compact, form all data and formulaejthat are ordinarily required. 
The book is completely up to date, including among other subjects a section on 
Aeronautics. 760 pages, limp leather binding. Price $6.00 

MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS— THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUC- 
TION. THE STANDARD BOOK. By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson 

and S. Bryan Donkin. 

In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a 
condensed treatise embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing 
marine engines and boilers. The fact that the original German work was written by 
the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that 
this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the in- 
formation which is necessary for the design and construction of the highest types of 
marine engines and boilers. It may be said that the motive power which Dr. Bauer 
has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out of late years from the 
Stettin Works represent the very best practice in marine engineering of the present 
day. The work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while 
the character of the plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The 
illustrations are careful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well- 
executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. Fifth impression. 
744 pages. 550 illustrations, and numerous tables. Cloth. Price . . . $10.00 

MANUAL TRAINING 



ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis Rouillion. 

The only book published that "gives just the information needed by all interested in 
Manual Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Shows exactly 
what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and 
Normal School. Gives itemized lists of everything used in Manual Training Work 
and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies, etc. Contains 
174 pages, and is fully illustrated. 2d edition. Price ........ $2.00 

MOTOR BOATS 

MOTOR BOATS AND BOAT MOTORS. By Victor W. Page and A. C. Leitch. 

All who are interested in motor boats, either as owners, builders or repairmen, will 
find this latest work a most comprehensive treatise on the design, construction, opera- 
tion and repair of motor boats and their power plants. It is really two complete 
books in one cover as it consists of two parts, each complete in itself. Part One deals 
with The Hull and Its Fittings, Part Two considers The Power Plant and Its 
Auxiliaries. A valuable feature of this book is the complete set of dimensioned 
working drawings detailing the construction of five different types of boats ranging 
from a 16-foot shallow draft, tunnel stern general utility craft to a 25-foot cabin 
cruiser. These plans are by A. C. Leitch, a practical boat builder and expert naval 
architect, and are complete in every particular. Full instructions are given for the 
selection of a power plant and its installation in the hull. Valuable advice is included 
on boat and engine operation and latest designs of motors are described and illustrated. 
The instructions for overhauling boat and engine are worth many times the small 
cost of the book. It is a comprehensive work of reference for all interested in motor 
boating in any of its phases. Octavo. Cloth. 372 illustrations. 524 pages. 
Price $4.00. 

30 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



MOTORCYCLES 

MOTORCYCLES AND SIDE CARS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION, MANAGE- 

MENT AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

The only complete work pubb'shed for the motorcyclist and repairman. Describes 
fully all leading types of machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation 
and repair. This treatise outlines fully the operation of two- and four-cycle power 
plants and all ignition, carburetion and lubrication systems in detail. Describes all 
representative types of free engine clutches, variable speed gears and power trans- 
mission systems. Gives complete instructions for operating and repairing all types. 
Considers fully electric self-starting and lighting systems, all types of spring frames 
and spring forks and shows leading control methods. For those desiring technical 
information a complete series of tables and many formulae to assist in designing are 
included. The work tells how to figure power needed to climb grades, overcome air 
resistance and attain high speeds. It shows how to select gear ratios for various 
weights and powers, how to figure braking efficiency required, gives sizes of belts and 
chains to transmit power safely, and shows how to design sprockets, belt pulleys, etc. 
This work also includes complete formula for figuring horse-power, shows how dyna- 
mometer tests are made, defines relative efficiency of air- and water-cooled engines, plain 
and anti-friction bearings and many other data of a practical, helpful, engineering 
nature. Remember that you get this information in addition to the practical de- 
scription and instructions which alone are worth several times the price of the book. 
2nd Edition Revised and Enlarged. 693 pages. 371 specially made illustrations. 
Cloth. Price $3.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

*' Here is a book that should be in the cycle repairer's kit." — American Blacksmith. 
" The best way for any rider to thoroughly understand his machine, is to get a copy 
of this book; it is worth many times its price." — Pacific Motorcyclist. 

PATTERN MAKING 



PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. Barrows. 

This book, now in its second edition, is a comprehensive and entirely practical treatise 
on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, 
and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of Paris in the trade. It gives 
specific and detailed descriptions of the materials used by pattern makers and de- 
scribes the tools, both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools; 
having complete chapters on the Lathe, the Circular Saw, and the Band Saw. It gives 
many examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much 
detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer much that will be found of 
interest to all pattern makers, and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking 
information on the more advanced branches of their trade. 

In this second edition of the work will be found much that is new, even to those who 
have long practiced this exacting trade. In the description of patterns as adapted 
to the Moulding Machine many difficulties which have long prevented the rapid and 
economical production of castings are overcome; and this great, new branch of the 
trade is given much space. Stripping plate and stool plate work and the less expen- 
sive vibrator, or rapping plate work, are all explained in detail. 

Plain, everyday rules for lessening the cost of patterns, with a complete system of 
cost keeping, a detailed method of marking, applicable to all branches of the trade, 
with complete information showing what the pattern is, its specific title, its cost, 
date of production, material of which it is made, the number of pieces and core- 
boxes, and its location in the pattern safe, all condensed into a most complete card 
record, with cross index. 

The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valua- 
tion of patterns. 2nd Edition. Containing nearly 350 pages and 170 illustra- 
tions. Price $2.50 

3i 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



PERFUMERY 



PERFUMES AND COSMETICS, THEIR PREPARATION AND MANUFAC- 
TURE. By G. W. Askinson, Perfumer. 

A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of 
value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Complete directions 
for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; 
preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and 
other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances; their 
nature tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic 
products with formulas for their use. A book of general, as well as professional in- 
terest meeting the wants not only of the druggist and perfume manufacturer, but 
also of the general public. Fourth Edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. 
Nearly 400 pages, illustrated. Price $5.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 
" The most satisfactory work on the subject of Perfumery that we have ever seen. 
•' We feel safe in saying that here is a book on Perfumery that will not disappoint you, 
for it has practical and excellent formulae that are within your, ability to prepare 
readily. 

"We recommend the volume as worthy of confidence, and say that no purchaser will be 
disappointed in securing from its pages good value for its cost, and a large dividend 
on the same, even if he should use but one per cent of its working formulas. There 
is money in it for every user of its information." — Pharmaceutical Record. 



PLUMBING 

MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. Starbttck. 

A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing 
in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected 
with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in 
explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the 
workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of 
greater responsibility. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of 
knowledge of drawing; tools required and their use; com m on views needed in mechan- 
ical drawing. 2. Perspective versus mechanical drawing in showing plumbing con- 
struction. 3. Correct and incorrect methods in plumbing drawing ; plan and elevation 
explained. 4. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawings; use of triangles. 
5. Use of triangles; drawing of fittings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations 
and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of 
plumbing fixtures; scale drawings. 9. Drawings of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking 
of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. Sectional 
drawings ; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations from architect's plan. 15. Ele- 
vations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from the architect's 
plans. 17. Drawings of detail plumbing connections. 18. Architect's plans and plumb- 
ing elevations of residence. 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued) ; plumb- 
ing plans for cottage. 20. Plumbing elevations; roof connections. 21. Plans and 
plumbing elevations for six-flat building. 22. Drawing of various parts of the plumb- 
ing system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. 24. Special features in the 
illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought-iron piping, valves, radia- 
tors, coils, etc. 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. 150 illustrations. 
Price $2.00 



32 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. Starbuck. 

This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted 
and used as a reference book by the United States Government, in its sanitary work in 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the 
United States and Canada. 

It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It 
is helpful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring 
work. It gives the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modern 
plumbing practice. Suggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained 
in its pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice 
and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who 
wishes to keep himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction. 
Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a full-page plate: Kitchen sink, 
laundry tubs, vegetable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs; 
bath tub, foot and sitz bath, shower bath; water closets, venting of water closets; low* 
down water closets, water closets operated by flush valves, water closet range ; slop sink, 
urinals, the bidet; hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap ; refrigerators, safe wastes, laun- 
dry waste, lines of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda fountain sinks; horse stall, frost-proof 
water closets; connections for S traps, venting; connections for drum traps; soil pipe 
connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor drains and 
cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local venting: 
connections for bath rooms; connections for bath rooms, continued; connections for 
bath rooms, continued; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor 
practice; roughing work ready for test; testing of plumbing system; method of con- 
tinuous venting; continuous venting for two-floor work; continuous venting for two 
lines of fixtures on three or more floors ; continuous venting of water closets ; plumb- 
ing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of 
special fittings; plumbing for two-flat house; plumbing for apartment building, plumb- 
ing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public 
toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath estab- 
lishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic flushing for 
schools, factories, etc.; use of flushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms: the 
Durham system, the destruction of pipes by electrolysis; construction of work without 
use of lead; automatic sewage lift; automatic sump tank; country plumbing; construc- 
tion of cesspools ; septic tank and automatic sewage siphon ; country plumbing ; water 
supply for country house; thawing of water mains and service by electricity; double 
boilers; hot water supply of large buildings; automatic control of hot water tank; sug- 
gestion for estimating plumbing construction. 407 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 58 
full-page engravings. Third, revised and enlarged edition just issued. Price . $5.00 

STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. Starbuck. 

A complete practical treatise of 450 pages covering the subject of Modern Plumbing 
in all its branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and 
practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range 
Boiler Work. Its thirty chapters include about every phase of the subject one can 
think of, making it an indispensable work to the master plumber, the journeyman 
plumber, and the apprentice plumber, containing chapters on: the plumber's tools; 
wiping solder; composition and use; joint wiping; lead work; traps; siphonage of 
traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain; 
soil piping, roughing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain 
leaders, etc.; fixture wastes; water closets; ventilation; improved plumbing connec- 
tions; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels, schools, factories, stables, etc.; 
modern country plumbing; filtration of sewage and water supply; hot and cold 
supply; range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot 
water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water 
boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for 
the plumber. Fully illustrated by 347 engravings. Price S3. 50 



33 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



RECIPE BOOK 

HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND 
PROCESSES. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. 

The most valuable Techno-chemical Formula' Book published, including over 10,000 
selected scientific, chemical, technological, and practical recipes and processes. 
This is the most complete Book of Formulas ever published, giving thousands of 
recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps, 
Practical Ideas, and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every 
branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money, and is just the 
book everyone should have at his command. 

Modern in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book 
may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and 
industries, and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a 
permanent record. To present here even a limited number of the subjects which find 
a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will 
be found matter of intense interest and immeasurably practical value to the scientific 
amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the many processes used in 
the arts, trades and manufacture, a knowledge which will render his pursuits more 
instructive and remunerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large 
manufacturer and supplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to 
conduct a process, the work will be found of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the 
Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, 
and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the 
Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the 
Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicure, the Manufacturer of Chem- 
ical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the 
Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the 
Jeweler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairy- 
man, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker, 
the Veterinary Surgeon, and the /Technologist Jn general. 

A mine of information, and up-to-date in every respect. A book which will prove of 
value to EVERYONE, as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. Every home 
needs this book; every office, every factory, every store, every public and private en- 
terprise — EVERYWHERE — shouldj have a copy. 800 pages. Cloth Bound. 
Price $4.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"Your Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas, and Processes duly received. 

I am glad to have a copy of it, and if I could not replace it, money couldn't buy it. It 

is the best thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) M. E. Thux, Sparta, Wis. 

" There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula 

that would repay several times the cost of the book." — Merchants' Record and Show 

Window. 

" I purchased your book ' Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and 

Processes' about a year ago and it is worth its weight in gold." — Wm. H. Murray, 

Bennington, Vt. 

"THE BOOK WORTH THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS" 

"On close examination of your 'Twentieth Century Receipt Book,' I find it to be a 
very valuable and useful book with the very best of practical information obtainable. 
The price of the book, $4.00, is very small in comparison to the benefits which one can 
obtain from it. I consider the book worth fully three hundred dollars to anyone." 
—Dr. A. C. Spetts, New York. 

"ONE OF THE WORLD'S MOST USEFUL BOOKS" 
"Some time ago, I got one of your 'Twentieth Century Books of Formulas*' and have 
made my living from it ever since. I am alone since my husband's death with two 
small children to care for and am trying so hard to support them. I have customers 
who take from me Toilet Articles I put up, following directions given in the book, 
and I have found every one of them to be fine." — Mrs. J. H. McMaken, West Toledo, 
Ohio. 



34 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



RUBBER 



RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIPULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. 

By T. O'Conok Sloane. 

This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner tha 
elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in 
any branch of the India Rubber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber 
Hand Stamps, Small Articles of India Rubber, XJ. S. Government Composition, Dating 
Hand Stamps, the Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons, India Rubber Solu- 
tions, Cements, Blackings, Renovating Varnish, and Treatment for India Rubber 
Shoes, etc.; the Hektograph Stamp Inks, and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short 
Account of the Discovery, Collection and Manufacture of India Rubber, are set forth 
in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being plain and simple. 
Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Making and Vulcanizing; also a chapter on the 
uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. Third revised and enlarged edition. 175 
pages. Illustrated $1.50 

SAWS 

SAW FILING AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By Robert Grtmshaw. 
A practical hand-book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of 
band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for 
those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals 
with the proper shape and pitcnes of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints 
and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws 
for any purpose. Complete tables of proper shape, pitch, and saw teeth as well as 
sizes and number of teeth of various saws are included. Fourth edition, revised and 
enlarged. Illustrated. Price $1.50 

SCREW CUTTING 

THREADS AND THREAD-CUTTING. By Colvtn and Stable. 

This clears up many of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple 
threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful 
hints and several tables. Fourth Edition. Price ...... 35 cents 



STEAM ENGINEERING 

MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By 

Gardner D. Hiscox. 

This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and Firemen, 
dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, 
refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other 
branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with 
their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examin- 
ing Board, are included. 

Among the chapters are: Historical: steam and its properties; appliances for the 
generation of steam; types of boilers; chimney and its work; heat economy of the 
feed water: steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above 
atmospheric pressure; flow of steam from nozzles; superheated steam and its work; 
adiabatie expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; slide 
valve engines and valve motion; Corliss engine and its valve gear; compound engine 
and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine; steam turbine; refrigeration; 
elevators and their management; cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric 
power and electric plants. 487 pages. 405 engravings. 3d Edition. . . . $3.50 

35 , 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

i — . 

AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. Crane. 

This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain 
talk on every-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not intended 
to be scientific or mathematical. All formulas are in simple form so that anyone 
understanding plain arithmetic can readily understand any of them. The author 
has made this the most practical book in print; has given the results of his years of 
experience, and has included about all that has to do with an engine room or a power 
plant. You are not left to guess at a single point. You are shown clearly what to 
expect under the various conditions ; how to secure the best results ; ways of prevent- 
ing "shut downs" and repairs; in short, all that goes to make up the requirements 
of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough for practical 
men and yet of value to those high in the profession. 

A partial list of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding; pumps. 
Inspection and repair; chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work; foundations; 
testing cement; pile driving; engines, slow and high speed; valves; valve setting; 
Corliss engines, setting valves, single and double eccentric; air pumps and condensers; 
different types of condensers; water needed; lining up; pounds; pins not square in 
crosshead or crank; engineers' tools; pistons and piston rings; bearing metal; hard- 
ened copper; drip pipes from cylinder jackets; belts, how made, care of; oils; greases; 
testing lubricants; rules and tables, including steam tables; areas of segments; 
squares and square roots; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles. 
Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumps; pump valves; heaters, economizers; 
safety valves; lap, lead, and clearance. Has a complete examination for a license, 
etc., etc. Third edition. 311 pages. 131 Illustrations. Price. . , . $2.50 

ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. 

A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to erect, adjust, and run 
the principal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal 
features of various special and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Shipping 
and Receiving Foundations, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use, 
Emergencies, Erecting and Adjusting Special Engines. 

The questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the 
answers are given in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All 
the instructions given are complete and up-to-date ; and they are written in a popular 
style, without any technicalities or mathematical formulae. The work is of a handy 
size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound, and profusely illustrated. 
To young engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may 
be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to 
engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more 
really practical and useful information than is to be found anywhere else within a like 
compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price $2.00 

HORSE-POWER CHART. 

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what 
the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or 
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and 
saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 cents 

STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. 

This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer 
principle, but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems 
that appertain to the operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations 
of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. Thirty- 
four Tables that are indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be 
progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within its pages. It is 
a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam Engineering. Leading engineers 
have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book 
for the engineer. It is thoroughly indexed for every detail. Every essential question 
on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable work. Sixteenth 
edition. Price $2.00 



36 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Chenet. 

A practical pocket-book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of 
the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of engines and 
boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a 
dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to aU of the little kinks in figuring what- 
ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute 
zero: adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and a thousand and one 
other things; and everything is plain and simple — not the hardest way to figure, but 
the easiest. Second Edition. I 75 cents 

STEAM ENGINE TROUBLES. By H. Hamkens. 

It is safe to say that no book has ever been published which gives the practical en- 
gineer such valuable and comprehensive information on steam engine design and 
troubles. 

Not only does it describe the troubles the principal parts of steam engines are subject 
to; it contrasts good design with bad, points out the most suitable material for certain 
parts, and the most approved construction of the same; it gives directions for correct- 
ing existing evils by following which breakdowns and costly accidents can be avoided. 
Just look into the nature of the information this book gives on the following sub- 
jects. There are descriptions of cylinders, valves, pistons, frames, pillow blocks and 
other bearings, connecting rods, wristplates, dashpots, reachrods, valve gears, gover- 
nors, piping, throttle and emergency valves, safety stops, fly-wheels, oilers, etc. If 
there is any trouble with these parts, the book gives you the reasons and tells how to 
remedy them. 

The principal considerations in the building of foundations are given with the size, 
area and weight required for the same, also the setting of templets and lining up, and 
a complete account of the erection and "breaking in" of new engines in the language 
of the man on the job. 

Contains special chapters on: I. Cylinders. II. Valves. III. Piping and Separa- 
tors. IV. Throttle and Emergency Valves. V. Pistons. VI. Frames. VII. Bear- 
ings. VIII. Connecting Rods. IX. Hookrods. X. Dashpots. XI. Governors. 
XII. Releasing Gears. XIII. Wristplates and Valve Motions. XIV. Rodends and 
Bonnets. XV. Oilers. XVI. Receivers. XVII. Foundations. XVIII. Erection. 
XIX. Valve-Setting. XX. Operation. 284 pages. 276 illustrations. Price $2.50 

STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION 

PRACTICAL STEAM, HOT-WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By 
A. G. King. ' 

This book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been pre- 
pared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating, and ventila- 
tion. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating contracts, how 
to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used 
with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation 
and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for every- 
one interested in steam, hot- water heating, and ventilation. It describes all the principal 
systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum-vapor heating, together 
with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on 
up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventila- 
tion. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of 
artificial heating apparatus. IV. Boiler surface and settings. V. The chimney flue 
VI. Pipe and fittings. VII. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating 
surfaces. IX. Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI Steam- 
heating apparatus. XII. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot-water heating XIV 
Pressure systems of hot-water work. XV. Hot-water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse 
heating. XVII. Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscella- 
neous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connections. XX. Ventilation XXI 
Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating. XXII. Steam appliances XXIII 
District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering. XXV. Temperature regulation 
and heat control. XXVI. Business methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous XXVIII 
Rules, tables, and useful information. 402 pages. 300 detailed engravings Third 
Edition — Revised. Price / $3.5$ 

37 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 
i 

600 PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUESTIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER, 
VAPOR AND VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By Alfred G. King. 

This work, just off the press, is arranged in question and answer form ; it is intended as 
a guide and text-book for the younger, inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for 
all fitters. This book tells "how" and also tells "why." No work of its kind has 
ever been published. It answers all the questions regarding each method or system 
that would be asked by the steam fitter or heating contractor, and may be used as a 
text or reference book, and for examination questions by Trade Schools or Steam 
Fitters' Associations. Rules, data, tables and descriptive methods are given, to- 
gether with much other detailed information of daily practical use to those engaged in 
or interested in the various methods of heating. Valuable to those preparing for 
examinations. Answers every question asked relating to modern Steam, Hot- Water, 
Vapor and Vacuum Heating. Among the contents are: The Theory and Laws of 
Heat. Methods of Heating. Chimneys and Flues. Boilers for Heating. Boiler 
Trimmings and Settings. Radiation. Steam Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe 
Connections for Steam Heating. Hot Water Heating. Th9 Two-Pipe Gravity 
System of Hot Water Heating. The Circuit System of Hot Water Heating. The 
Overhead System of Hot Water Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe Connections for 
Gravity Systems of Hot Water Heating. Accelerated Hot Water Heating. Ex- 
pansion Tank Connections. Domestic Hot Water Heating. Valves and Air Valves. 
Vacuum Vapor and Vacuo- Vapor Heating. Mechanical Systems of Vacuum Heating. 
Non-Mechanical Vacuum Systems. Vapor Systems. Atmospheric and Modulating 
Systems. Heating Greenhouses. Information, Rules and Tables. 214 pages, 127 
illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price $2.00 

STEEL 

BTEEL: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPERING. 
By E. R. Markham. 

This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for 
everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave 
the treatment of another kind of tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives 
careful instructions for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just 
a screw-driver. It tells about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of 
cutlery, and the annealing of dies. In fact, there isn't a thing that a steel worker 
would want to know that isn't included. It is the standard book on selecting, harden- 
ing, and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned 
the following subjects: Introduction; the workman; steel; methods of heating; 
heating tool steel; forging; annealing; hardening baths; baths for hardening; harden- 
ing steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hardening; pack harden- 
ing; case hardening; spring tempering; making tools of machine steel; special steels; 
steel for various tools, causes of trouble; high speed steels, etc. 400 pages. Very 
fully illustrated. Fourth Edition. Price $3.00 

HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL. 
INCLUDING HEAT TREATMENT OF MODERN ALLOY STEELS. By 

J. V. WOODWORTH. 

A new work treating in a clear, concise manner all modern processes for the heating, 
annealing, forging, welding, hardening, and tempering of high and low grade steel, 
making it a book of great practical value to the metal-working mechanic in general, 
with special directions for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools 
used in the arts, including milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and 
shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet metal working tools, shear 
blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal cutting tools of all description, as well as for all 
implements of steel both large and small. In this work the simplest and most satis- 
factory hardening and tempering processes are given. 

The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented, 
and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special 
methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. 

A chapter devoted to the different processes for case-hardening is also included, and 
special reference made to the adaptation of machinery steel for tools of various kinds. 
5th Edition. 321 pages. 201 illustrations. *?«ce ....... $3.00 



38 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



TRACTORS 

MODERN GAS TRACTOR: ITS CONSTRUCTION, UTILITY, OPERATION 
AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. 

An enlarged and revised edition that treats exclusively on the design and construction 
of farm tractors and tractor power plants, and gives complete instructions on their 
care, operation and repair. All types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors 
are described, and every phase of traction engineering practice fully covered. In- 
valuable to all desiring reliable information on gas motor propelled traction engines 
and their use. All new 1921 types of tractors are described and complete instructions 
are given for their use on the farm. The chapter on engine repairing has been greatly 
enlarged and complete and detailed instructions are now given for repairing weli- 
known and widely used tractor power plants, numerous new forms of which are 
described. Valuable information compiled by Government experts on laying out 
fields for tractor plowing and numerous practical suggestions for hitches so all types 
of agricultural machinery can be operated by tractors, are outlined. The chapter 
on tractor construction and upkeep has been more than doubled in size. Over 100 
new illustrations have been added and the book greatly enlarged. Full instructions 
are now given for using kerosene and distillate as fuel. The 1921 edition is 50 per 
cent larger than the second edition and is more than ever the acknowledged authority 
on farm tractors and their many uses. 5M x iy 2 inches. Cloth, nearly 700 pages, 
and about 300 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price $3.00 

WELDING 

MODERN WELDING METHODS. By Victor W. Pag& 

One of the most instructive books on all methods of joining metals yet published for 
the mechanic and practical man. It considers in detail oxy-acetylene welding, the 
Thermit process and all classes of electric arc and resistance welding. It shows all 
the apparatus needed and how to use it. It considers the production of welding gases, 
construction and operation of welding and cutting torches of all kinds. It details 
the latest approved methods of preparing work for welding. All forms of gas and 
electric welding machines are described and complete instructions are given for 
installing electric spot and butt welders. Cost data are given and all methods of 
doing the work economically are described. It includes instructions for forge and 
dip brazing and manufacture of hard solders and spelters. It shows and explains 
soft soldering processes and tells how to make solders for any use. Complete instruc- 
tions are given for soldering aluminum and authoritative formulas for aluminum solders 
are included. 292 pages. 200 illustrations. 1921 edition. Price . . $3.00 

AUTOMOBILE WELDING WITH THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME. By 

M. Keith Dunham. 

Explains in a simple manner apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construct 
necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile 
parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. Gives principles never to be for- 
gotten. This book is of utmost value, since the perplexing problems arising when 
metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to 
overcome them shown, 167 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $1.50 



39 



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